Venetian Report on Suleiman the Magnificent - 1553

Background

In 1549, on the 21st of September, the highly esteemed senator Bernardo Navagero (who later became a cardinal) was elected bailo to Constantinople by the Venetian Republic. He departed from Venice on the last day of May 1550, together with Caterino Zeno, who was sent as extraordinary ambassador to Sultan Suleiman upon his return from the Persian expedition. Navagero’s term as bailo lasted thirty-nine months, from the day of his election to his return to his homeland, where, about two months after his arrival, in February of 1553, he read the present report to the senate.

This report, says Foscarini in Book IV of his Venetian Literature, is one of the most valuable Venetian reports ever written, known for the abundance and faithfulness of the information it contains; and from the earliest times it was held in the highest esteem by statesmen.

Bernardo Navagero was born in 1507; he was elected cardinal in 1560; bishop of Verona in 1562; he died in 1565.

Subheaders were added by me, for readability.

Report

I return, Most Serene Prince, from Sultan Suleiman, the son of Sultan Selim, a prince aged sixty-two years, who has reigned since 1520, who in body and face shows himself to be melancholic, yet has a great deal of grandeur about him. He is master of a great part of the world, and holds it under his empire; for he holds all of Asia Minor (now called Anatolia), and proceeding southward, the ancient kingdoms of the Armenians, the Assyrians, and the Medes, and Babylon, which they call Baghdad¹. From there it extends to Mecca, the sepulcher of Muhammad, encompassing Desert Arabia, where there are certain nations of Arabs who live without a leader and more by plunder than by anything else, keeping their dwellings in tents, which they carry from place to place, wherever is most convenient for them. These people are of very sharp intellect, and those who serve in the armies become valiant captains. From Mecca, the empire of the Grand Signor² extends towards Mocha on the shores of the Red Sea, which is a port of call for the ships that come from the Indies; and it embraces Yemen, bordering the Indian Sea—a kingdom, so it is said, very beautiful and large in Arabia Felix. On the opposite side, he has Egypt, and there Cairo and Alexandria, great cities of much commerce; then it extends as far as Algiers and Tripoli, which the Turks have recently taken³; on which side the Sultan of Constantinople borders with the Emperor⁴ and with the Sharif⁵, of whom, in due course, I will say what is worthy of Your Serenity’s attention.

In Europe, then, where he has his seat of Constantinople, the Grand Signor possesses all of Greece, the two Mysias (which they now call Serbia and Bulgaria), Albania, Bosnia as far as the river Sava, and so great a part of the kingdom of Hungary that he comes to border near Vienna, having Alba Regale (Stuch-Vessemburg) and Strigonia (Gran) in his power. On the shores of the Adriatic Sea and of Dalmatia, he borders on all the possessions of Your Serenity; and having Cilicia and Syria so little distant from the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, and the Morea⁶ and his seat of Constantinople not very far from the island of Candia⁷, it can be said that from every side he holds a commanding position over our maritime state; and his borders extending, as has been said, not very far from Vienna, from which place there is a very easy and very open transit through Friuli⁸, one may fear having him at our back through that entrance as well.

All of this state, although it comprises so many kingdoms and provinces in Europe, in Asia, and in Africa, formerly the seats of many ancient and renowned kings, lords, and republics, they distinguish with two names only, that is, Rumelia and Anatolia, including under the first name all the states that the Grand Signor possesses in Europe, and under the second all those he possesses in Asia and in Africa.

Revenues & Expenses

What the Grand Signor extracts from the aforesaid countries is a difficult thing to know in truth, because many speak differently, and some say fifteen million in gold a year, others thirty thousand ducats⁹ a day, which makes nine hundred thousand a month, which at a yearly rate would be ten million eight hundred thousand ducats. But what I have gathered from the books of the caznà¹⁰ sums to nine million in gold, twenty-two thousand and five hundred ducats. And first:

The caraz, which is the tribute paid by the Christians who inhabit the lands of the Grand Signor, amounts now to more or less 1,500,000 ducats.

The duty on public letters granted by the Grand Signor—that is, patents, privileges, briefs, commandments, and other public writings—for which each person is assessed according to his condition: 100,000 ducats

Goods and properties of deceased persons who die without heirs: 300,000 ducats.

The people of the sanjak¹¹ of Argos who do not pay caraz of one ducat per head like the other Christians, but one ducat per hearth, yield: 200,000 ducats.

Egypt and all of Arabia give one million and eight hundred thousand ducats, of which half remains there to pay the wages of the men-at-arms who are kept in those parts, and who are paid in money, (while to the rest of the men are given assignments of villages and of tithes); so that only half goes to the caznà, that is: 900,000 ducats.

Syria yields six hundred thousand ducats; half of which likewise remaining to pay the men who are stationed for the defense of those parts, thus remaining only: 300,000 ducats.

Mesopotamia yields two hundred thousand ducats a year, from which fifty thousand are deducted for the maintenance of the men, so that for the caznà there remain only: 150,000 ducats.

All the mines of gold, of silver, copper, lead, iron and steel, salts, rock alums, and every other sort of mine, it is written that they give a year: 1,500,000 ducats.

All the duties on commerce of every sort which exist throughout the entire dominion of the Turkish Lord, amount to the sum of more than: 1,200,000 ducats.

All the tithes of grains and fruits: 800,000 ducats.

The tribute of Moldavia: 160,000 ducats.

The tribute of Wallachia: 12,000 ducats

The tribute of Transylvania: 10,000 ducats

The tribute of Ragusa: 10,000 ducats

The tribute of Chios: 10,000 ducats

The tribute of Nicosia: 8,000 ducats

The tribute of the rest of the Archipelago: 6,000 ducats

Total ducats: 7,166,000¹²

Although these monies are brought to the caznà of the Grand Lord, they are not however fixed, nor certain to reach such a sum each year, because in one year they amount to more, and in another to less; and most of the time the amount is much less, especially in time of war, when duties and commerce largely fail. And so it is written, as I have said above, in the book of the Grand Lord. In which it is also written that, besides the assignments for his captains and soldiers, which sum to two and a half million in gold, another six million in gold per year goes from these monies that enter the caznà for the expenses of his troops, so that about one million in gold per year would remain in the caznà.

Officers

This Grand Signor has few fortresses in all his empire, and the greater part of them were built by the Christians.

He has, then, in this empire two beylerbeys, which means lord of lords, one in Rumelia which is in Europe, the other in Anatolia, which is in Asia; and under the one of Rumelia there are two lesser beylerbeys, those of Buda and of Temesvar, which is the gateway to Transylvania, and under the one of Anatolia there are fourteen others. It is then considered a greater dignity to be beylerbey of Greece than of Anatolia. Under these beylerbeys, of both Europe and Anatolia, are many sanjaks, and, from what I have been able to understand, in Europe there are enough of them to furnish forty thousand war horses, and in Asia, eighty thousand. The sanjaks have from twenty to forty thousand ducats a year of income, which is paid from the money from duties and the kharaj¹³, and they are obliged to maintain first an alaybey, who is the lieutenant of the sanjak, and then timariots or spahis, who, under the command of the alaybey, are together with him subject to the sanjak’s obedience. The alaybey has half the income of his sanjak, and the timariots at most forty thousand aspers¹⁴, and at least three or four thousand; although due to their tyranny the revenues from the tithes are estimated at an eighth or a sixth, as will be told when this subject is spoken of in particular. I say that since the tithes are estimated at much less than what they actually yield, they are worth up to double to them, and in many places more, especially to the sanjaks. The obligation of these men is that for every forty thousand aspers they are required, whenever needed, both in time of peace and of war, to present a man on horseback fit for action. The timariots then, up to eight thousand aspers, are not obligated to present anyone beyond their own person—and many even up to nine and ten thousand, according to the grace that is granted to them. These sanjaks, alaybeys, and timariots, to satisfy the obligation of the men they must lead into the service of the Grand Signor, raise slaves and make use of their labor.

The number of sanjaks, from what I have understood, is between sixty to seventy in Europe, who, all together, with their alaybeys and timariots, can furnish about forty thousand horse. In Asia they say there are truly one hundred and fifty sanjaks, besides the fourteen beylerbeys under the government of the first beylerbey of Anatolia, and they can raise in all, from what is said, from eighty to one hundred thousand horse.

The procedure of the sanjaks during the time they reside in their sanjaklik is this: that to relieve themselves of so much expense, they distribute all these men of theirs throughout the country, both in the places assigned to them for their provision, and in those of the alaybeys and timariots, with the rank of soubashi, or ministers of justice; who, besides collecting the tithes, also condemn the peasants for every small thing very cruelly, and they have introduced the practice that the village at which the soubashi arrives with his men is obliged to pay his expenses for three days, so that in this way too the sanjak derives a benefit. If it happens that the sanjaks must leave the country for some other occasion, they sometimes leave some men behind in their place, but for the most part they sell their rights and privileges to private individuals until their return; who, buying them, seek to profit in every way to the extreme detriment of the miserable subjects.

The Seraglios [Palaces]

But because besides these forces, which I have spoken of until now, the Grand Signor also has his household, which is obligated in time of war either to follow his majesty, if he goes in person, or to go where he commands. It is not out of place to say something of this as well.

I find that the seraglios of the Grand Signor are four in number. One in Adrianople, another, called the old seraglio, in Constantinople, the third in Pera, and the fourth where his majesty himself resides.

These four seraglios are filled every time war is made, either by sea or by land, with the children of Christians of every sort, such as Bulgarians, Hungarians, Transylvanians, Poles, Bohemians, Germans, Italians, Spaniards, a few French, many Albanians, Slavonians, Greeks, Circassians, Russians, and in sum of every sort of Christian, except for Armenians, whom, along with the Jews, the Turks cannot, according to a testament made by their prophet, hold as slaves. If the Grand Signor is in Adrianople, said slaves are sent to the seraglio of Adrianople, and if in Constantinople, he sends them either to the old seraglio of Constantinople, or to that of Pera, so that they may learn the language.

These, as soon as they arrive, are dressed from head to foot in inexpensive cloth, such as boraccini, cloths of Salonica¹⁵, and shirts and caps of cloths of Bursa, and they are clothed twice a year. As soon as they are clothed, they are given into the hands of some talisman, who teaches them to read and write, and makes them understand their law. These talismen have a pay of eight aspers a day; but after they have served four or five years, they are made kadi, and they continue to rise in rank according to their exercise in letters, until they can be made mufti, that is, head of all the Turks in matters of faith, which is a most honorable rank. The talismen are for the most part Turks from Anatolia and Karamania, and are obliged to come every day to the seraglios, where they stay continuously until evening teaching the boys, who, once the talismen have departed, are then in the custody of some Saracen¹⁶, and white, eunuchs, the aga of whom (that is, the chief) has a pay of twenty-five aspers a day, and the others from three to seven, and the highest they can rise to is to become a sanjak, but this is very rare.

The pages all have a pay of one asper, and every two years the kapi-aga¹⁷, who is placed over all these seraglios, comes to visit them all one by one, and seeing them bearded he takes them out, and gives them pay from ten to twelve aspers a day, and they are called spahi; and those who seem to him most beautiful of body and of manners, and who have made the most progress in their studies, or whom good fortune guides, he takes them out of the seraglios, and places them in his majesty’s own seraglio, in which there are about twenty white eunuchs for the custody of the said pages. But four of these eunuchs are greater than all the others. The first is the kapi-aga, who has a pay of one hundred fifty aspers a day, besides the perquisites he holds, which are more than three thousand; the other is called the caznadar-bascì, who has a pay of one hundred aspers a day, besides the perquisites which are two thousand; the third is called chiltergì-bascì, who has a pay of fifty aspers a day, besides the perquisites, which are one thousand; and the fourth semi-aga who has thirty aspers, and few perquisites. All the other eunuchs have from ten to fifteen aspers a day, in addition to their garments all of cloth of gold and of silk.

In the said seraglio there are five houses:

The first is called the small house, where the young pages from six to fourteen years of age stay, who apply themselves to writing Turkish, Arabic, and Persian, and to shooting the bow.

The second is called the great house, where the pages from fifteen years of age until manhood stay, and these perform the same exercises as the first. Those of these two houses have eight aspers of pay per day, in addition to their garments, which are made of cloths not of the first quality, with certain caps of cloth of gold from Bursa.

The third house is called chilèr, where the chilergì-bascì resides, which means great steward of the pantry, and with him are from three to four hundred pages, all dedicated to the pantry of the Grand Signor, who also learn to shoot the bow, wrestle, jump, and run.

The fourth house is called the caznà, where the caznadar-bascì resides, which means great treasurer. In this house there are from about sixty to seventy pages; and when it is necessary to draw something from the caznà, a caznadar, which means an employee of the treasury, goes, together with some of the said pages, who hold their hands in check, nor do they dare make any sign, nor speak one with another, until the said caznadar says: “You there, take such and such a thing:” and he is obeyed at once. Those of these two houses likewise have eight aspers of pay per day; but they differ in that they are dressed in satins, damasks, and cloths of gold from Bursa, with coifs on their heads to the value of one hundred to one hundred fifty sequins.¹⁸

The fifth house is that where his majesty stays, and in it are the pages who serve him, and it is called cas-sodà, which means the most perfect room. The pages are in number from twenty-five to thirty, of whom by day and night five or six stand on their feet without raising their heads, nor speaking, nor making any utterance, and they are relieved in turn; but when his majesty sleeps, he is guarded only by four of these pages dedicated to this service, two of whom stand guard from the first hour until midnight, and the other two from midnight until daybreak; and as soon as the Grand Signor has gone to sleep, they sit under two torches of white wax which burn all night, and if it is cold they find two sable furs, which would be enough for two large men, and they take some book, and with it they pass the sleeping hours until it is time to change the guard; this is not done because of any suspicion of enemies, nor of anything else, but only for the necessary things that men require, such as if his majesty should wish to rise to say his prayers, or other necessary things. These four pages are changed every night from among those thirty who are within, and have a pay of thirty aspers a day, and are in the custody of the odà-bascì, which means chief of the chamber of the Grand Signor, and they are dressed in the finest damasks, satins, and cloths of gold, with wrought belts valued at one hundred fifty and two hundred sequins each. Among these are three more favored pages, one of whom is called silictar, who carries the bow, the arrow, and the sword of the Grand Signor: the second is called scudradar, who carries with him a pair of changes of garments for the Grand Signor; the third scarabdar, who carries the masdrahà for the drink of the Grand-Signor. And these three always rise from rank to rank, and become sanjaks, agas of the janissaries, beylerbeys of the land and of the sea, and even First Pasha¹⁹, according to their conduct and their good fortune.

With these five houses, it is customary to do the same as is done for the other seraglios, that is, every two years, when the selection for the other seraglios is made, the bearded ones are also taken away from these, and the manner is thus: Those four aforementioned chief eunuchs come, and from these five houses they take out those who seem to them the most bearded, and set them aside. Of those who then remain, the most handsome, lettered, and well-mannered are taken from the first houses, the small and the great, and are placed in the other two, that is, of the pantry and of the treasury, and those who likewise seem to them worthy of going to the service of his majesty, they place in that seraglio, until they come of age to go out. After this selection, the kapi-aga goes and says: “Sire, the time has now come when your slaves, who pray to God for the life of Your Majesty, must leave the seraglio.” The Grand Signor says nolà, which means let it be done; and immediately all those bearded ones who are to leave arrange themselves as best they can to kiss the hand of His Majesty, who, before the door of his chamber, upon a small square where there is a very large and very rich carpet of silk and gold, seated upon a Turkish-style chair, with great majesty, with one hand on his side upon his dagger, and the other upon his thigh, orders that those bearded ones be called, who come one by one, greatly cheerful and reverent, and some kiss his robe, others his feet, without saying a single word. After the Grand Signor has seen them all, he greets them, and they, bowing their heads to their knees, make a sign of thanking God and his majesty for having left the seraglio in good health; and upon their departure, each one is given his rank and pay, and by the kapi-aga they are directed to those aga, or captains, under whose governance they are to be from then on; of which aga they likewise kiss the hand, and the aga instruct them in the way of living outside, and place them in the hands of the older ones, who, in the manner of godfathers, instruct them in all things.

Their pay is as follows: those who leave the first two houses receive from fifteen to twenty aspers in pay; those who are eighteen years old are silictari, that is, those who ride on the left side of the prince, and those who are older are spahi-oglani, who go on the right side, and also have from twenty-eight aspers. Those who come out of the other two houses often have up to forty aspers in pay, and receive the title of casnigir, of whom there are up to the number of forty-five to fifty, and it is a very honored rank because they bring the food to his majesty. Those who leave the house of the prince have a greater stipend, rank, and honor. Of those three, then, who carry the arms, the clothes, and the drinking vessel for the Grand Signor, only one leaves at a time, and he leaves either as emiraor-bascì, which means grand master of the stable, or capigi-basci, which means chief of the gatekeepers: and there are four of these capigi-basci, and it is a very honored rank, and they have pay of one hundred and fifty to two hundred aspers a day, and an income of thirty to forty thousand aspers a year, and they keep rising until they become pashas, and they say the greatly favored Ibrahim²⁰ was one of these, as well as Rustem²¹, who enjoys greater greatness and favor with this prince than anyone has ever had.

The Janissaries

Besides these forces, which consist entirely of cavalry, the Grand Signor also has a corps, or to speak more accurately, a legion of foot soldiers, who are called Janissaries, which means “new soldiers.” In this corps of the Janissaries, one sees what discipline and training can accomplish; and because a great part of the Turk’s strength is reputed to consist in them, it should not be unpleasing to Your Serenity to understand in detail the method used in selecting them, the hardships they endure before reaching this rank, the authority they have acquired, the pay the prince gives them, their arms and their clothing, and above all, their unity.

I say, therefore, that whenever, either due to the death of Janissaries or for some other cause, it seems fitting to the Grand Signor, or he is reminded, to provide some number of men for this militia, a command is always sent out, with a chief of the Janissaries, who is also given a scribe for company. In the command are written the provinces and the hamlets from which the Janissaries are to be gathered, and the number wanted; and the captain departs from Constantinople carrying as many new garments as the number of men designated to be chosen as Janissaries, and goes to the farthest borders of those provinces given to him by the command: where, having arrived, he summons the protogiro (“first elder”) of that land and the nearest hamlets, who has the heads of household of all the Christians in those places come forth, and commands that they immediately present all their sons; and for fear of the penalties imposed upon transgressors, who are immediately executed, everyone presents all of them. The captain of the Janissaries, together with the scribe, then chooses from each family the one who seems to him of an age and disposition most suited for that service, desiring them to be between twelve and fifteen years of age, and seeking the least ugly, the strongest, and the most able to tolerate fatigue.

If a father should have four or five sons, they take but one at a time; but they do not, however, spare one who has only a single son. They dress them all in a livery of cloth long enough to reach the ground, with a long cap with a plume on top, and call them “azam-oglani”, otherwise little Janissaries. They do the same in Constantinople as they do in the farthest designated borders, and when they have finished and gathered the number that has been ordered by the command, they no longer trouble any other place, nor other lands or hamlets, and they come directly to Constantinople.

There, on the day they arrive, all these youths are placed in family homes, as many as can fit, where they stay that night, and in the morning they are all led to the house of the Aga of the Janissaries, who makes it known to the Grand Signor, and the latter commands that they be brought before him in the company of the said Aga. Of these, if any seems suitable to him, and pleases him, he has him placed in his seraglios, and the others return to the house of the Aga of the Janissaries, who delivers them to two others called agas of the unpaid azam-oglani, who have the care of distributing them and giving them into the service of the great masters as many as are requested, but with a written record of how many, to whom, and where they are given.

The rest are taken to Anatolia or to Greece, and the aga of the unpaid azam-oglani of Greece has the charge of taking them to Greece, and giving them to Turkish citizens, one or two per household, to make them learn the Turkish language, and plow the land, and do every other service that the citizen might need; and the other chief of the unpaid azam-oglani of Anatolia does the same. These chiefs receive as payment from the citizen to whom they deliver the azam-oglani twenty-five aspers per head, and some secret present, because the citizens make use of them as slaves, although they have not bought them.

The azam-oglani stay for a long time in both Greece and Anatolia, and after two or three years have passed, according to the need for services in Constantinople, those agas of the azam-oglani without pay are sent to Greece and Anatolia to fetch a certain number of those who seem to them to have acquired good knowledge of the language and to be ready for service. Having gathered that number, they return and bring them to Constantinople. And this time the azam-oglani come willingly, knowing they have escaped from serving those citizens and have been raised in rank and put on salary. Of these, some have served the peasant for two or three years, and some for four, five, or six, because it is at the discretion of the one who goes to gather them, in Greece as in Anatolia, to take or leave whomever he sees fit.

Once brought to Constantinople, these azam-oglani are again presented to the great Aga of the Janissaries, then delivered to another aga of the azam-oglani with pay; and this aga keeps them under discipline and has them serve in all the building works of the Grand Signor and of the great masters, carrying lime, timber, and all those things that are necessary for the buildings.

These azam-oglani have a daily pay of one asper, and with that they cover their living expenses; and they have this arrangement: that every twenty-five or thirty of them stay in a dormitory and appoint a cook from their company, and each of them, from his own pay, collecting twenty-five aspri each, makes a pool, and with that money they buy rice, butter, hulled wheat, wood, candles, enough to suffice for a month for their living, and from month to month they save five aspri each, and with those, at the end of three months, they buy shoes. Their clothing is given to them by the Grand Signor every year, made of coarse blue cloth from Thessaloniki, and linen for their shirts. Their cook does not contribute, because of the duty he has of cooking, cleaning their clothes and shoes, and washing their shirts. These twenty-five or thirty have in each room an overseer, named buluc-bascì, and this man is permitted to wear a white hat, and always with a stick in hand he goes in their company, and never strays from them, so that they do not disturb the people while walking; and said buluc-bascì*is a kind of guardian, and has a pay of two aspri per day. These azam-oglani*wear on their heads a yellow cap a palm and a half long, pointed at the top and open at the bottom just enough to fit on the head.

Some of these azam-oglani are also assigned to the service of the palanders²², to the ferries from Constantinople to Anatolia and other more distant places, to make them work hard and learn seamanship; some are also sent to the prince’s gardens to hoe and perform all the services of vegetable gardens, gardens, and vineyards, so that they are never idle, except on the day of bairam, which is the Easter of the Muslims.

Of these azam-oglani, there are eight hundred in the garden of the Grand Signor’s seraglio; and these have a pay of two aspri per day. These also cover their own living expenses. It is true that they often receive gifts from the Grand Signor, especially when he goes hunting, and these men row the brigantine of the Grand Signor, and see him face to face; who, when he goes hunting, takes with him all the azam-oglani of his gardens, and each garden has its chief, and the gardens are about twenty in number.

The azam-oglani of all the gardens number two thousand, and all these gardens have a chief over the other heads, called the bostangì-bascì, who is the helmsman of the Grand-Signor’s brigantine. His chamber is in the garden of the Grand-Signor’s seraglio, and whenever the latter wishes to leave his chamber and enter the garden, he sends for this bostangì-bascì, who immediately approaches a door that is near the prince’s chamber, and there his horse is made ready, and the bostangi helps him to mount and places himself before him, walking on foot through the garden, and speaks with him about everything that his majesty wishes to know.

This garden is very large and is three miles around, and in the middle are the chambers of the Grand Signor and of the Lady Sultana, whose chamber is separate; and to go from one to the other one must pass through a small walled garden of the Grand Signor, and then through another walled garden of the Sultana. This chief of all the gardens, the bostangi-bascì, holds a very great office, for he is continually with the Grand Signor, and is much courted and given gifts, even by the pashas, like a great prince, because in speaking with the Grand Signor, he can cast words in favor of one and in disfavor of another, being a person well-versed in the things that are continually done in Constantinople, of the justices and injustices, and of the reasons why they are done, and of the injuries that the people suffer at the hands of the great masters and administrators. This bostangì-bascì later becomes a beylerbei, and most of the time a beylerbei of the sea.

Returning now to the azam-oglani, I say that when one of the Janissaries of the white cap, of the number of the twelve thousand who are under the great Aga of the Janissaries, is missing, either through loss or also through the advancement into other offices that some may receive, to maintain the complete legion of twelve thousand, they take from these aforementioned azam-oglani, and put them in the place of those dead or removed, and to these they give a pay of, to some three aspers, to others four a day, which little by little increases up to eight. Among the azam-oglani, those who come from the aforementioned garden leave with a higher rank than those who work in the workshops or on the ships, and can aspire to greater offices.

The Janissaries wear certain skullcaps so tight that the head can barely fit inside, and very low, into the inner part of which they place a certain thing of wood more than a span long, covered with gilded and worked silver, and from the back part hangs a white felt almost three spans long and one wide, which lends them great grace, and makes them known in every part and place to be Janissaries, and causes everyone to hold them in the utmost respect. In that front part, some who have performed some distinguished deed place a plume, and I have seen many so large, of eagle feathers, that they cause wonder and laughter to those who see them in Constantinople and in other places; but this they do only in time of peace.

When they travel, they go with certain staves three arm’s lengths long and quite thin, nor do they ordinarily carry other weapons, except for many of them a rather long knife for cutting bread, with its sheath attached to the side, and for an ornament, they then tuck it into the sash that girds them. They all call each other brothers, and if one is offended, all consider themselves offended and help him. Most of them live together near their Aga in various small rooms, under the governance of other Janissaries, who are their chiefs, and who, being Janissaries themselves, have acquired this title of chief through some distinguished operation.

They do not carry weapons on their person, as I have said, in time of peace, nor do they have any defense other than that cap on their heads, described a little earlier, which is sufficient to ward off any great knife-blow. In war they carry various sorts of arms, and they march in disarray without any order, as I will describe in particular when we come to the manner of forming the armies of these people, and of their marching when the person of the prince is present.

Their cry is “Padiscia!”, which means “Emperor, our father!” to whom they are so naturally affectionate and devoted that they would lay down a thousand lives a day for his greatness.

These Janissaries, for any great sin they commit the first time, even if they should kill or murder a man, have no other punishment than to be cashiered from the Janissaries, so that the second time they commit some error they are severely punished, and most of the time they are secretly bastonaded in their chambers by their chiefs, so as not to cause them that public shame.

With these men the Grand Signor seeks to honor ambassadors or other distinguished persons when they come to the Porte, commanding that a greater number of them be assembled in proportion to the honor he wishes to bestow upon that person.

It is they who rush to put out the fires when they break out in Constantinople and in Pera, and they serve on every important occasion, such as being sent with an army when it is to be made large; in sum, they are esteemed the sinew of the Grand Signor and his security. There have sometimes been more of them, sometimes fewer, but ordinarily it is believed that they number twelve thousand, although at times there have been only eight to ten thousand; and they are more willingly kept at this number, seeing that they possess such authority that it would be in their power to change whatever they wished in this empire; besides which, they took for themselves whatever share of other men’s women and property pleased them, without much fear of being punished. Now, however, I am informed that fifteen thousand five hundred and sixty-one are recorded in the books.²³

Whoever has designed, or now designs, to make himself Lord after the death of another, has attended and attends to nothing other than acquiring the favor of the Janissaries, which is won with liberality, and by giving the impression of being a man of war, eager to undertake great enterprises.

To this attends Mustafa, the first-born of the Grand Signor, who has acquired the favor not only of them, but of all the Mussulmans [Muslims] with those two qualities that I have mentioned: that is, with money, and by causing himself to be esteemed as a man able not only to equal, but to surpass the glory of his predecessors. Of this I reserve the right to speak more particularly when I shall tell of the sons of this Grand Signor, and of the opinion that is held as to who ought to succeed him.

The Janissaries are not accustomed to go on horseback, except to the place where they have their business, and then they dismount; and when going to war, or on any enterprise, they take the horses of all without any respect, and pay ten for what is worth a hundred, and everyone bears it patiently, and many receive beatings.

Their power is born of their unity and military discipline, because in every need they are always ready, and having passed through so many hardships, they are reputed to be the best troops that the Grand Signor possesses.

These, at the time of a sultan’s death, are so many devils unchained, going to the houses and to the places where they think they can most easily enrich themselves, because they know that in any case, not only will any great evil they do be forgiven them by the new Grand Signor, but also many favors they ask will be granted, because it is they who conduct him into their midst in the seraglio and hail him as emperor. And I understand that when the present sultan Suleiman, the only-begotten son of Sultan Selim, succeeded to so great an empire without any contest and by the common consent of all (which must be reputed, in my judgment, as one of the many felicities His Majesty has enjoyed, and no small grace to have been made so great a lord without the blood and life of his kinsmen²⁴), they asked as a favor that, since they always go on foot, His Majesty be pleased to command that no giaour, that is, Christian, could ride a horse through Constantinople, or that the few His Majesty permitted might ride a mule, which was granted and is observed by almost everyone, save for public personages.

Marching Formation

Your Serenity has been able to see, from what I have said thus far, the greatness, breadth, and borders of the states of this Grand Lord; the men he ordinarily has in Anatolia (or Asia), and in Greece (or Rumelia); the beylerbei, the sanjak, and the number of horsemen he can raise; the net income he draws from his states; and the infantry he possesses. It now remains for you to hear of the manner which the Grand Lord employs in arranging his men in formation and in battle, when he goes in person, and of the matters of the sea, which is what most concerns Your Serenity.

When the Grand Lord wishes to undertake some enterprise, he always sends a command to his beylerbei and sanjaks that in such a place, at such a time, they be in readiness according to the enterprise he designs to make; and having received the command, all put themselves in readiness most swiftly, and they come to where the whole army is to assemble, which marches in this manner:

Before all others march some six hundred bombardiers, together with the artillery upon some small carts, because the Grand Lord does not bring very heavy artillery. Then comes an advance guard armed with arquebuses and halberds, led by four or five sanjaks, which is followed by the corps of the Janissaries, divided under its squad leaders called buluc-bascè and captains called taia-bascè. The squad leaders are paid nine aspers and the captains twenty-three, and the Janissaries from three to eight. This formation is not, as is the custom among Christians, with so many per file, but they go in disarray, some here, some there; but then, at the time of battle, each one knows his quarter and leader, and immediately finds his place there. These squad leaders and captains are on horseback: all the rest are on foot. The Aga then, or colonel-general of the Janissaries, who is obeyed in each and every thing, is paid fifty aspers a day, and three thousand aspers a year from a timar.

Following these are the two cadileschièr, that is, judges of the army, one for the people of Anatolia, the other for the people of Greece, of whom the Grand Lord, if he is to fight, first has it asked if what he does is against the law and against justice.

After these come two tefterdar, or treasurers, who write down all the things taken as booty on behalf of the Grand Seignior, and they guard them. They have an income of three or four thousand ducats a year each, besides the perquisites which are twice as much; and each one has one hundred very fine and well-armed slaves on horseback, with lance, sword, iron mace, coat of mail, and a Turkish-style round shield.

After these go the casnigir, who are, as I have said, those who bring the food to the Grand Signor. They are forty in number, and all are persons of great authority and honor.

After these come the solac with golden coifs on their heads, and certain large and honorable plumes, all on foot with their captains, of whom there are four; which solac have a pay of eight aspers a day, and the leaders thirty. In their midst stands the person of the Grand Seignior, and they, like footmen, stand around him armed with a scimitar, bow and arrows, and are perhaps two hundred in number.

Immediately behind the person of the Grand Signor follow the three pages mentioned above, who carry the arms, the vestments, and the drinking vessel for the same.

Then follows the capigiter-chietcudascì, which means lieutenant of the gatekeepers, behind whom are two capigi, that is, gatekeepers; and this lieutenant is charged, if on the journey some sanjak or other person wishes to kiss the hand of the Grand Seignior, with having him dismount from his horse and instructing him in the manner of making reverence.

Afterward comes the emiralem, which means chief of the standards of the Grand Signor. He has three hundred aspers a day. Behind him come six standards of various colors, nor are they ever seen except when the Grand Signor goes to war in person. These standards are carried by six non-noble persons, who can have up to ten aspers in pay.

On the right side of these standards is a red banner, before which is the aga of the spai-oglani, which means chief of the young horsemen, who usually number two thousand, but now if they reach five hundred it is a great deal. Their pay ranges from twenty-five aspers up to forty, and the colonel has one hundred and fifty. They all carry a red banner at the tip of their lance, and they all seek to appear on good and very well-armed horses, all of whom deploy in the manner of a wing.

On the left side of the aforementioned standards is a yellow banner, before which goes the aga of the silictari, who likewise has one hundred and fifty aspers a day, and each silictari from fifteen up to forty, all with a small yellow banner at the tip of the lance, and they number two thousand. They seek to appear as honorably as the spai-oglani, and they too deploy in the manner of a wing.

After these on the right side, once the line of the spai-oglani has ended, follows a green banner, before which is the aga of the ulufegi, which means chief of the salaried horsemen, and he has a pay of one hundred aspers a day, and the ulufegi number two thousand. Their pay is from ten up to thirty aspers, all with a green banner at the tip of the lance, very well armed on good horses, but not so well as those of the first two colonels. These also deploy in the manner of a wing.

Alongside these, on the left, follows a half-red and half-white banner, before which is the aga of the solbuluk-ulufecis, which means the captain of the left part of the salaried horsemen, who has a pay of one hundred aspers, and the pay of his men is likewise from ten to thirty aspers, and these too are upon good horses. Atop their lance each one carries a small half-red and half-white flag, and likewise they extend in the manner of a wing.

It is to be noted that these four colonels are all renegade Christians, having come out of His Majesty’s seraglios, or sons of other colonels, or having been Janissaries and advanced thus for the good service they have rendered.

After these on the right side, after the salaried horsemen, comes a white banner, and before this comes the aga of the ciarcagis, which means colonel of the poor young horsemen, who also have a pay of ten to thirty aspers, and their colonel one hundred; and they are likewise upon good horses, and atop their lances they have a small white flag, and likewise they extend into a wing.

Alongside these, on the left, follows a green and white banner, before which comes the aga of the solboluk-ciarcagis, or rather, the poor young horsemen of the left part, who has a pay of one hundred aspers, and said horsemen also have from ten to thirty aspers, well armed and well mounted, with atop their lance a small half-green and half-white flag, and they extend in the manner of a wing.

After these on the right side, following the poor young knights, comes the major pasha, called the Grand Vizier, with a two-colored banner, made according to his pleasure, with perhaps fifteen hundred of his slaves, all having at the tips of their lances a small banner of the same colors as the large one, all excellently mounted, excellently dressed and armed; and with said pasha is a lieutenant who commands these troops behind him. This major pasha has twenty-four thousand ducats a year, besides the perquisites, which are innumerable and perhaps exceed sixty thousand ducats. The lieutenant has sixty aspers a day, and perquisites that amount to as much again; and of the slaves, there are some who have a pay of three to ten aspers, and others an income of four to twenty thousand aspers a year, besides food and drink, and oats and hay for the horse.

After the poor knights of the left side comes the second pasha, also with a two-colored banner, as best pleases him, with perhaps a thousand slaves, all also having at the tips of their lances a small banner similar to the large one; and they are in excellent order and excellently mounted, and he likewise has a lieutenant. The said pasha has perhaps twenty thousand ducats of income a year, besides the perquisites, which it is no exaggeration to say may be another twenty thousand ducats; his lieutenant has forty aspers a day, besides perquisites that amount to as much again; and the others have from three to ten aspers a day, food and drink, and oats and hay for the horse, and in the same manner they are arranged in a wing.

After these on the right side, after the Grand Vizier, comes the third pasha, also with a two-colored banner as he pleases, with perhaps a thousand horsemen, all carrying at the tips of their lances a banner similar to the large one, upon most excellent horses and excellently armed; and this pasha has the same, that is, twenty thousand ducats a year, besides the perquisites which are as much again, and these men also, like those of the other pashas, have from three to ten aspers of pay, and some from four to twenty thousand aspers of income a year, besides food and drink, and oats and hay for the horse.

With these, on the left side, behind the second pasha, comes the fourth pasha also with a two-colored flag of his own design (and it should be known that these flags are indeed all of two colors, but they do not resemble one another), with the same number of a thousand horsemen, who all have at the tip of their lance a small flag similar to the large one, they too well armed and well mounted. This pasha also has an income of twenty thousand ducats, and the perquisites which are perhaps as much again; and these soldiers also, like those of the other pashas, have three to ten aspers a day, and some from four to twenty thousand a year in income, besides food and drink, oats and hay for the horses: and also to all these the pasha gives horses and arms, and clothes them once a year very well according to their rank.

And it is to be noted that in the army described thus far there are slaves very well mounted and well armed, who are guarding the baggage train with some captains; and there are perhaps three hundred fine horsemen called Muteferrica, who have no other leader than His Majesty, and they never go to war unless His Majesty goes; and these have for pay from twenty to two hundred aspers a day, and they are persons much esteemed and honored throughout the entire army.

After the aforementioned come the two beylerbeys, that is, the one of Anatolia and the one of Greece. If the army were to go into Anatolia, the beylerbey of Anatolia would march on the right-hand side, and that of Greece on the left, and vice versa. The beylerbey of Greece has with him eight sanjaks who can lead some forty thousand men, all brave, well-mounted, and well-armed, who cannot wait to fight. The said beylerbey has an income of fourteen thousand ducats a year, and the rest of the men from three to eight thousand, and these likewise extend themselves in the manner of a wing. The beylerbey of Anatolia comes with perhaps ten sanjaks, and sixty thousand men on horseback, but they are not as good as those of Greece. This beylerbey has an income of twenty thousand ducats a year, and those sanjaks from four to eight thousand ducats, and these similarly have their large banners and extend in a wing. Each of the beylerbeys then has about fifty çavuş, or sergeants, who on every occasion go running at full gallop to inform His Majesty, and to hear what he commands: and if there is to be a battle, the first are the two beylerbeys, although in marching we have seen the Janissaries to be first.

Strategic Analysis

From what I have said thus far, Your Serenity can see that, besides the states and the income that this Grand Signor has, he also ordinarily has on his payroll, in time of peace as well as war, in Anatolia, that is, in Asia, one hundred thousand horse, and in Rumelia, that is, in Europe, from fifty to sixty thousand, besides his Porte which amounts to almost another twenty thousand horse, in addition to the adventurers who follow the camp, and the aid of the Tatars, Wallachians, and his other confederates. And if among so many men on horseback he has only one band of twelve thousand Janissaries on foot, it can be understood from this that his land forces must be more fearsome in open places and in the countryside than in sites where there are narrow passes to cross and fortresses to be stormed, and where there are many rivers.

It is also understood that far from home, having to lead so many horsemen, if the enemies were to burn the provisions, without any other encounter with them, the army would ruin itself. Another conclusion can also be drawn; that having no disciplined order either in cavalry or infantry, whenever he had to fight a battle with disciplined people, such as the Germans, the Spanish and almost all the Italians, an honorable victory could be hoped for; because it is clearly seen in ancient and modern histories, that whoever has trusted too much in the number and quantity of armies, and not in the quality, has always come to a bad end. And if he who has more money, more state, and more people, were always to be greater than the others, one would never have seen so many changes in the world as have been seen, since in every age there has always been found some prince, or king greater than all the others, who was then extinguished by others of much lesser strength, but of greater unity; and the examples are so many and so clear, that I will not weary your serenity by recounting them, and I will content myself with this sole one of the Ottoman house, which in the space of two hundred, or a little more, years, from the head of a faction, with the valor of its people, has now become master of almost two parts of the world.

These soldiers esteem the greatness of the Grand Signor as their own; and although the greater part are renegade Christians, they nevertheless profess to be greater enemies of the Christians than the others, and they all have the firmest opinion that by fighting a Christian and dying they go straight to paradise. It remains, however, that the Christians are greatly feared, and in their prayers that they make, both day and night, their ulema always pray to God with infinite humility and devotion that the Christians may never be victorious, to which all who are present respond with the same humility and devotion “amin, amin,” which means “so be it, so be it.”

To pay one’s people the same both in time of peace and of war would perhaps be an error, seeing that men, not having a greater stipend in time of war, would reluctantly accommodate themselves to the dangers and hardships, and to the expenses that war brings with it, if it were not for two hopes: the one of enriching oneself with the spoils of the enemy, the other of acquiring a more honored rank, always with virtue and through some distinguished operation that they perform in time of war. Because truly, Most Serene Prince, there is nothing that more inflames the spirits of all to do well, than the hope of being recognized and remunerated; and in all states where this has had place and force, marvelous proofs have been continually seen.

Maritime Forces

Having dispatched with these matters of the land forces, I will now speak briefly of those of the sea.

The arsenal of the Grand Signor, speaking of the main one, is found opposite Constantinople on the side of Pera, in a very convenient and appropriate place both for the land side and for that of the water, being in the extreme part of the great canal, where there is good depth. It has one hundred and thirteen vaults, and more could be made if one wished.

It has an abundance of large timbers, and is supplied without much difficulty from various parts and places, especially from Anatolia through the mouth of the Black Sea. They also have iron in quantity. They used to draw it from a place inland in Greece, but this was most inconvenient due to the distance: now they are supplied from Anatolia, which has perfect mines of pure copper and of steel, and they transport it conveniently through the mouth of the Black Sea. The gunpowder they make near the Seven Towers²⁵, not far from Constantinople, and they have convenient mills, and forced craftsmen who make it. Thus for sails they are easily supplied by the flax they have in upper Greece towards the Black Sea, where, the place being humid, certain sorts of flax grow from which they make coarse cloths in abundance, and they are not without much hemp from our lands.

At present there is no other master shipbuilder except one who is quite good, of the Greek nation, born in Rhodes, named Michele Benetto. They might have three or four who would know how to design a galley, but all depend on this chief and esteem him greatly, and they have a salary of fifteen aspers per day. There are no other salaried masters, but there are others who do the heavy work on the timbers of the arsenal, both with ironwork and other things, and they may number three hundred.

Truly, when the fleet is being armed, by command they have people come from Gallipoli, Mytilene, Chios, Rhodes, and other diverse places to work, and of these, by using force, they obtain a great number; and while they work they are paid from eight to twelve aspers a day, and they are all Greeks, excepting some slaves, who for the benefit of their masters on the galleys take care of all necessary things.

As for the crews, for two or three months before the departure of the fleet, ciaus are sent with commands to the sanjaks and other ministers in the provinces, and each one, according to the levy they impose, is obligated to bring a certain number of men, or failing that, to give one thousand aspers per head; but they have difficulty in finding good ones. Many value the force of slaves accustomed to the chain, and also the adventurers they call marauoli, most of them from the Greek islands and Candia, accustomed to service on ships and galleys.

There is also Topàna²⁶ where they cast the artillery, and where they have many pieces, but for the most part taken in various campaigns, and they have various masters of every nation who are forced to work.

Per galley there are from one hundred and eighty to two hundred men, when they do not put a greater number of Janissaries on board, and about one hundred and fifty oarsmen, and from thirty to forty ghimigi²⁷, and about twenty bombardiers, who are always paid by the master, called the reis.

On a galley they have a fifty-pounder piece of artillery at the prow, and four smerigli, or muskets. The large piece has fifty balls; the other four, twenty balls each, depending on the campaign. They then bring along other vessels with munitions, powder, bows, arrows, and many other arms.

These reis used to number three hundred in total; this number was replenished upon a death, and was never lacking. But it seems to me that now, to reduce expenses, they do not wish for them to be replaced. They now have about one hundred and fifty, but only a hundred of them are good, for they are old. They are both replaced and approved as the captain of the artillery wishes, for he is the absolute master when at sea, and all depend on him. It is their custom, upon exiting the Castles²⁸, that the general reads a command from the Grand Signor indicating where his course should lead, and the manner in which he is to fight and attack, having no certain knowledge of this beforehand.

In the first assault, these Muslims have a frightening cry, and they perform acts of great valor, saying that everything is predestined, and that they can walk among a thousand deaths, for if it is not their day, they will never be put to death.

A notable seaman at present is Dragut, who, having been a corsair, must certainly have some knowledge of seamanship. They also have the Sanjak of Algiers²⁹, who also has some experience, and a renegade Genoese comito, called il Pezzuin, whom they greatly esteem. Also greatly esteemed by them is Piri reis, who was a corsair, and is in command of the guard at Alexandria.

It is their custom, once the fleet has departed, to prepare other new galleys for whatever need might arise, sometimes more, sometimes less. But one sees what the Grand Signor can do from what has happened in these past two years, for though he wished to make a show of force with his fleet, he has not been able to assemble in total but about a hundred vessels; and although diligence was used to set out in good time, and the Captain of the Sea, with the favor of his magnificent brother³⁰, and by his own nature, was obeyed as the very person of the Grand Signor, and would have liked to set out as captain of a much larger and earlier fleet, yet he could not assemble a greater number than what I have said, nor set out any earlier: and it is certain that great things require strength and much time, and although the Turkish Lord is as powerful as I have said, he too has great difficulties.

The Captain of the Sea which the Grand Signor now has, has little experience in naval matters, because he has never had either command nor any practice in this service; he is however obeyed and esteemed more than any other captain would be, given whose brother he is [the Grand Vizier’s], nor does he suggest anything that is not executed, and he wishes to be recognized by all as the head. He is not very courteous and is little reserved in his speech, choleric, and to put it better, furious, so much so that there is no man, however much a friend he may be, who can speak to him in his first outbursts. He believes easily, and as he gives his word, he wants it to be so, and he can with difficulty be moved from it. He is avaricious like all the other Turks, whence it comes that by the subashis of Pera and by his ministers new troubles are raised every day, and new vexations imposed on all the inhabitants of Pera, which are then settled with money and with gifts.³¹ There is no Mussulman so vile, nor so abject, that is not in the right before him against Christians, and he says that a Mussulman would never say a thing that was not so; so that to negotiate with him requires great prudence and fortune.

He has always shown ill will towards the affairs of Your Serenity, and since Dragut has entered the service of the Grand Signor, this ill disposition of his has grown even greater; so that if the Turkish fleet was always to be feared, it is much more so now that it is in the hands of such ill-disposed souls, some of whom, like Dragut, have been personally offended³²; nor could one ever be so in the right that it would have any force or standing with them. The Pasha his brother loves him extremely, and favors him beyond measure, nor can he bear to hear him spoken of ill; from which it follows that he does whatever comes into his head without any fear, and everyone keeps quiet, even when receiving great injuries, for it seems to them that whatever property or other thing they are left with is a gift.

He is a man of about forty years, as far as one can tell, tall and stout, with a dark complexion and a great vivacity in his eyes, and most diligent in the dispatch of his business. The galley slaves were quite content with him last year, as he insisted that they be well treated by their reis, and that they should lack for nothing for want of money.

Sultan Suleiman

But because in the preservation of empires it is not only necessary to have a multitude and variety of countries, and to have much money and many forces, both of land and of sea (for, as has been said, if that was enough, an empire who was once great would have continued its greatness), but good governments and counsels are necessary, and particularly the quality of the person of the prince, to which others then seek to accommodate themselves, and from which springs the love or hatred that his subjects have for him, therefore it cannot but be well that Your Serenity also be informed of the customs and character of this Grand Signor. Although he has already reigned for thirty-two years, so that from his actions one could form a judgment of him without any other report, and furthermore, there have been to His Majesty at different times so many bailios and ambassadors from this Most Illustrious Dominion [Venice], who in their prudent and detailed reports have instructed this Most Illustrious Senate from time to time; yet because years change the thoughts of princes, as do many other circumstances, such as finding oneself with grown sons, and having men for counselors of different natures, as he has had in the past, I believe it will not be unwelcome to Your Serenity to hear of his present condition, and the disposition of His Majesty’s mind, so far as can be conjectured, towards all Christian princes, and principally towards Your Serenity, not failing also to mention those among the infidels whom he seems to esteem, and who could greatly impede or delay his designs.

Sultan Suleiman, the present emperor of the Orient, is a man, to begin with this, of about sixty-two years of age, tall of person, exceeding the median stature, lean, of a dark complexion, and has in his face a wondrous greatness together with a gentleness that makes him amiable to all who see him.

He is very sober in his eating, rarely eating and little meat, and that of a kid goat that has red skin. Nor does he drink wine as it is rumored he did in the time of [the Grand Vizier] Ibrahim³³, but very delicate waters, altered according to the seasons, always with respect to his infirmities, which are said to be two: one is gout, the other a disposition to dropsy, and from this it comes that he never stays still for long: because when he is in Constantinople, very often, indeed almost every day, he goes in his brigantines to various places, and the gardens of Anatolia, hunting and taking great exercise. For this reason also he greatly enjoys his winter stay in Adrianople, because he has a seraglio so situated that, upon leaving the gate, he is immediately in the hunting grounds and places of amusement; which delights him so much that he does it almost every day.

And to come to the parts that matter most, which are those of the mind, he has the reputation of being very just, so that when he is well informed he does wrong to no one. He is an observer of his faith and law as much as any other who has been of his house, in which they say he has studied and wished to understand particularly the principle of not breaking his word and his faith; nor can greater praise be said than this. He is a man who, through the continual practice he has had for the many years he has been in the empire, understands all things very well, and most of the time resolves on the best course. He has by his nature always been more inclined to peace than to war, and at present more than ever for being old and for having four now-grown sons, and for other reasons which, God willing, will allow him to enjoy the rest of the time he will live, while war could cause him many strange events.

From this it has come that, against the custom of his predecessors, he has left himself almost always in the hands of a counselor, such as Ibrahim was, and then Ayas, and then Suleiman — dismissed with art by Rustan, as will be told in its place — and lastly Rustan, who now finds himself in such greatness, and so established, that it can be said that he is the lord of the entire empire. I say his greatness is established, because never was a pasha found who had a daughter of the sultan for a wife, with her living mother nearby, who holds the reins of the Grand Signor’s will.³⁴ Moreover, the pasha has become such a master of the Grand Signor’s nature that he knows very well, as soon as he has spoken to him of a matter, whether it pleases him or not, and he adapts to the situation, conducting all his designs by that path which he knows to be opportune. But of the pasha’s condition and the ways he maintains it, we shall speak a little more particularly when we speak of his person.

This Grand Signor has had two very dear women: one a Circassian, the mother of Mustafa his first-born; the other [Roxelana], whom, against the custom of his predecessors, he has married and keeps as his wife³⁵, of the Russian nation, so loved by his majesty, that there was never in the Ottoman house any woman who had greater authority. It is said that she is pleasant, modest, and that she knows the nature of the Grand Signor very well; and the way in which she entered into his majesty’s favor I have understood to have been this: The Circassian, naturally proud and beautiful, and who already had a son, Mustafa, had heard that this other one had been enjoyed by the Grand Signor, whereupon she addressed her with many insulting words; and from words coming to deeds, she scratched her whole face and tore her hair, saying to her: “Traitoress, sold flesh, do you wish to compete with me?” It happened that a few days later the Grand Signor sent for this Russian to take his pleasure with her; she did not let this opportunity slip, and courageously said to that aga of the eunuchs, who had come to fetch her, that she was not worthy of coming into the presence of the Grand Signor, because being sold flesh, and having her face all ruined and almost without hair, she knew she would offend the greatness of so great a Lord by coming before him. These words, when reported to his majesty, induced in him a greater desire to have her come to him, and again he commanded that she should come. He wished to understand why she had not come, and why she had sent him those words. The woman narrated to him what had happened with Mustafa’s mother, accompanying her words with tears, and showing the Grand Signor her still-scratched face and many of her torn-out hairs; because of which the Grand Signor, angered, sent for the Circassian, and asked if what the other had said was true. She replied that yes, and that she had done less to her than she deserved; she, having once been in His Majesty’s service, believed that all the women ought to yield to her and recognize her as their mistress. These words, having so much more inflamed the Grand Signor, were the cause of him no longer wanted her, and he gave himself entirely to the love of this other, with whom he has had four male children — of whom one is dead, and the other three live — as well as one daughter, who is the wife of Rustan.

The first son that Sultan Suleiman had with this one was Sultan Mehmed who died. He was most pleasing to his father, and in the grace of all others who knew him, for having been very humane and liberal. The Grand Signor and his mother wished to honor him with a most beautiful and sumptuous mosque.³⁶

The second is Sultan Selim, who lives five or six days’ journey from Constantinople. He has an income of three thousand somme of aspers, which is sixty thousand ducats a year. He professes to be just and good, but often becomes cruel. Under this pretext, he is reputed to be avaricious and a man given to debauchery, and that wine often makes him lose his senses.

The third son is named Sultan Bayezid, who has his seat in Karamania, five days’ journey from Constantinople, and has the same income as the other of three thousand summe of aspers, and is inclined to peace, nor is he a man of arms; and although he was born of the same womb as Sultan Selim, they nevertheless do not love each other much, and it is said that this Sultan Bayezid rather favors the greatness of Sultan Mustafa. This place of Karamania, where Sultan Bayezid resides, used to be the place and seat of the beylerbey of Anatolia; but through the work of his mother, to keep her sons closer to Constantinople for various reasons, it was given to Bayezid, and the beylerbey was assigned to Angora, from eight to ten days’ journey from Constantinople.

The last son born of this woman is named Sultan Cihangir. He is a little hunchback, but of a quick and lively intelligence. He is still in the seraglio with his father, although he is now of an age to leave it, and they say he is Suleiman’s principal solace, and this is a certain thing, because he always takes him with him to the hunt and on the brigantines everywhere he goes, and many times on certain occasions prompts him to say: “God give you long life, O Lord, but I am not yet without hope of become Grand Signor; and should this not happen, whoever the Lord may be, it will not displease me, because he will have nothing to fear from me.” And his father one day, sighing, said to him: “Son, Sultan Mustafa will be Grand Signor, and he will take the lives of all the rest of you.”

This Sultan Mustafa is the firstborn of all, born of the Circassian mother. He has his seat in Amasya, about twenty-six days’ journey from Constantinople, on the frontiers of the Persians. He has an income of four thousand summe of aspers, which is eighty thousand ducats a year. He has his mother with him, who uses all her diligence to guard his life from poisons, and reminds him every day that he has nothing else to guard against, and it is said that he holds her in infinite respect and reverence.

It could not be said how much he is loved and desired by all to be the successor to the empire. The Janissaries want him, and they let this be understood openly; nor is there a Turk or slave of the Grand Signor who does not have the same opinion and desire; for, besides being the firstborn, by which right it seems the empire should come to him, the fame he has for being valiant, liberal, and just makes everyone long for him.

No Janissary, nor other slave of the Grand Signor, passes through his country to whom he does not give a gift, and whom he does not treat with such kindness that he departs most content and satisfied; and thus he has been acquiring the great name that he has, and in all their needs the Janissaries have a place to turn, and from his government no appeals ever come to the Porte.

He often sends his father gifts of the most beautiful horses, and also holds in reserve for his father some thousands of ducats, which does not displease him.

One thing has been admirable in him so far: that with so much favor as he knows he has, it has never been suspected that he has attempted any novelty against his father, and while the brothers of the other mother are so near to Constantinople, and one even in the seraglio, he nevertheless remains quiet.

As I have said, it is the universal opinion that Sultan Mustafa should succeed to the empire. But there could, however, be various accidents of fortune that would make it fall upon Sultan Selim (for the other two are held in little consideration), and all the designs of Selim’s mother, who is so dear to the Grand Signor, and those of Rustan, who has so much authority, aim at nothing other than this end: to make, in case of death, Selim his brother-in-law the heir. Hence it is that the pasha seeks to place in important offices all persons who depend on him, such as the sanjaks, the Aga of the Janissaries, and the Captain of the Sea (who is his brother), whom he will have continue in this office for this reason — or, removing him, will put a person in his confidence there, because to prohibit Sultan Mustafa from the succession of the state, there is no surer way than to be able to block his passage with a fleet.

It is true that the proximity of Sultan Selim, and the favor of his mother should she survive, and of the pasha, master of the treasury and of the Grand Signor’s money, could in a sudden accident of death have Sultan Selim placed on the throne, and with money, with which all things are done, erase from the minds of those people the affection they have for Sultan Mustafa, and in this way preserve themselves; but the latter would not then cease with his own forces and with the help of others to recover what had been unjustly taken from him. But whoever may be the successor, everyone fears — and many, including the Turks themselves, say — that this inheritance will not be settled without difficulty and blood, and they fear that this may be the beginning of their ruin. Concerning this, it is a difficult thing to judge the inclination of the father’s mind, because although they are all his sons, he nevertheless has the Sultana continually with him, who seeks to put her own sons in his favor, and Mustafa in disgrace; but yet it is known that at the name of Mustafa he cannot help but be moved, and he likewise, even if he desired otherwise, has said that Mustafa will be Grand Signor.³⁷

For these reasons, Sultan Suleiman, and because of his age, and for having accomplished so many deeds that he seems to himself a worthy successor to the virtues of his ancestors — having acquired Rhodes and Belgrade, driven the unfortunate king of Hungary from his kingdom and deprived him of his life, and having gained many places on the borders of Persia — it is judged, not without good reason, that his mind is set on peace. To this is added the fact that the pasha’s mind is the same, for he is inclined to quiet, and not without reason; because with peace he is sure to always maintain the same reputation he has at present, and to enjoy the greatness of that entire empire, as he does, and also because, planning for his brother-in-law’s succession to the empire, if the occasion were to arise while he and the Grand Signor were in the field, all his efforts would be in vain: and it was clearly seen that in this last war in Transylvania with the most serene King of the Romans³⁸, the Grand Signor showed on several occasions that he regretted that matters had gone so far. In short, it is believed, as I say, and reasonably so, that this Grand Signor will henceforth abhor war, and that he will not wage it unless forced, neither by his own hand, nor in his own person, but by the hand of others, as he did this year when, having announced his intention to go to Hungary in person, he then resolved to send Achmet Pasha.

Attitude towards the Christian Rulers

But because it is not enough to have said of the Grand Signor’s mind in general that it is inclined to peace, I will also speak, although it is a difficult thing to know the secrets of princes, of the disposition of his mind towards the Christian princes, of whom there are five whom he holds in greater consideration: that is, the Emperor, the King of France, the King of the Romans, the King of Poland, and Your Serenity; for he makes little account of the Supreme Pontiff and of Germany, and the Turks say that the Germans are good for nothing, and that they have always been routed by them.

In truth, Sultan Suleiman bears an extreme hatred for Charles V, as it seems to him that he alone can stand in the way of his greatness, having seen how many important victories he has won, and having been told that in addition to the forces he possesses, he is very wise in counsel and courageous in his undertakings, and that he continually maintains a fleet of sixty galleys in his pay, and can build a much larger number of vessels. So that he hates the Emperor not only as a Muslim and an observer of his law, which implies a natural enmity towards Christians, but even more so because no other prince is more esteemed and feared by him than the Emperor himself; for this reason, when the first opportunity to make a five-year truce presented itself, he accepted it gladly, and was extremely pleased that the Emperor deigned to send him an ambassador.³⁹ Thus, as long as Sultan Suleiman can avoid any occasion for going to war with him while he lives, he will do so.

As for the King of France, the Grand Signor will always hold him in esteem, as he is a great king and a natural enemy of the Emperor, and since his states border the Emperor’s on all sides, he can, should the need arise, create a diversion and hinder his plans; a fact which his ministers do not fail to have mentioned often at the Porte, and which on every occasion they make clear to the pashas.

Of the present King of France [Henry II] however, they used to hold a poor opinion, seeing that he did not write to his ambassador, and it already seemed that the friendship they had maintained with King Francis was diminishing. Then, on the occasion of the differences that arose between the Most Serene King of the Romans and the Grand Signor over the cause of Transylvania, King Henry entered more than ever into Suleiman’s favor by making a league with his confederates in Germany and planning to make war on the Emperor. By saying he was doing this principally for the sake of this Grand Signor, so that the Emperor, being occupied, could not aid Transylvania or turn his forces to those parts, he has come into greater favor with His Majesty than his father ever was; and there is nothing so great that could not be obtained through the French.

The French set their armada in motion this last time and, joining it with that of the Grand Signor, attempted this enterprise of which Your Serenity knows.⁴⁰ Last year it was also brought out with great promises from France, which, however, resulted only in the Turks gaining Tripoli.⁴¹ Yet for all that the French provide the armada, and the Turks maintain relations with them, the latter do not trust them completely, for they say that they are Christians, and that the common bond of a single law and a single faith is a powerful force.

They hold the most serene King of the Romans [Ferdinand I] to be a lord of little virtue in arms, and not very fortunate, so that from the defeats they have inflicted upon him they do not esteem him much, and the respect they have for him is solely due to the greatness of his brother [Charles V], whom they repute to be one and the same as him.

They hold in higher opinion the King of Bohemia, his son⁴², and are advised that he is much loved by the Germans and the Hungarians, and that he is the son-in-law of the emperor⁴³, and they fear that he may have better fortune against them than his father has had.

Your Serenity and this Most Illustrious Dominion used to be in much greater credit and repute than they are at present at the Ottoman Porte, because the Turks, seeing an empire as great as that of Charles V, armed by land and by sea, and with a continuous course of so many victories, greatly feared that, adding to those the sea forces of this Most Illustrious Dominion, they could do them some harm. But they became clear on this matter in the last war; and every day there is no lack of people who constantly affirm to the Porte that they can do what they wish with this Most Illustrious Republic, because she tolerates every injury, however grave, rather than go to war another time; and that, being merchants, we cannot live without them; and that even if there were nothing else, the continuous need for grain is enough to allow them to do whatever they wish with this state. So that although the loss of the city, of people, and of money in the last war was great, I nonetheless consider this loss of reputation to be much greater. Which, although many, by every means, seek to take away entirely, yet they cannot do so much that the forces Your Serenity has at sea do not preserve a part of it; because besides those that are in this dominion, they are of the opinion that it is in Your Serenity’s power, in any time of need, to join them with those of the Emperor; which, speaking with the reverence that I owe to you, it is well that they believe. And in truth, although the magnificent Rustan has always heard me and spoken humanely, yet at the time when their armadas have been out, the favors he has done me have been extraordinary; and also the continuous traffic that is carried on in the lands of the Grand Signor by the galleasses and ships of Your Serenity, for the profit that the treasury and private individuals derive from it, cause her to be held in some respect, although as far as reputation is concerned, I do not know if more good or ill comes from this; and all the more so if it is true what these gentlemen merchants tell me, that for some time now capital has been lost rather than gained.

To hold back and not undertake voyages for some time would be nothing if not opportune; and would it please the goodness of God that these, our own lands, could provide sustenance and succor the needs of this city and our other territories, as it would be a matter of the greatest reputation for this our Most Illustrious Dominion not to request grains, nor to send ships to carry them away. And I promise Your Serenity, that if for only two years we could do without, we would have them afterwards just the same, and the Turks themselves would beg that they be taken, and they would not have the opinion that has been impressed upon their minds, that we cannot do without them. Besides, however fertile and abundant a harvest they may have, and however great a quantity of grain they may find themselves with, whenever a request is made of them, they wish to sell it as they please. And the magnificent Rustan on this occasion, under the pretext of not wishing other grains than his own to be sold, has them bought secretly for a very low price, and has them sold at excessive prices; and although they often boast of not wanting to trade with the giaours [Christians], as it is against their faith, yet so great is their avarice that they cannot wait to do it. And therefore, whenever the occasion should arise for this Most Illustrious State to need grain, one must not doubt being able to obtain it with money, but with greater or lesser advantage according to the manner and insistence of the request.

And so that Your Serenity may live in peace with the Grand Signor, should you desire to continue it, I reverently remind you that, not being his equal in strength nor able to prevail by the sword, you should seek to continue this peace with gold and with presents — which is a most certain path — while also increasing daily both the naval forces and that suspicion they have that Your Serenity desires peace with the Emperor; nor should you distrust him; since the pasha in his many discourses with me, as I have written from time to time, has never sought anything other than to make His Imperial Majesty odious to us. Considering which, I have always made the effort to say that Your Serenity has for many years been at peace with him, and wishes to continue in it; but that nevertheless no friendship, of whatever kind, would alter Your Serenity from continuing in the peace with the Grand Signor.

Attitude towards other Muslim Rulers

There are also among the Mohammedan princes two whom the Grand Signor greatly esteems: one is the Sofi [Safavid Shah], who is little less than adored by all his people, and whatever enterprises this Grand Signor has attempted against him have never succeeded in the way he wished. And I find that there are two reasons for which this Grand Signor and all the Ottomans will never have a greater enemy, and whose ruin they desire more than that of the Sofi and all his descendants. The one reason is that the Ottomans cannot yet forget that Tamerlane, from whom they say the lords of Persia descend, defeated Bayezid I, took him, and carried him away shut in an iron cage, keeping him for a triumph under his table when he ate, like a dog, and mounting upon the cage whenever he wished to mount his horse.⁴⁴ The other cause of hatred is an important difference in their religion; for although they all believe in Mohammed, there is this difference between them: that Mohammed, having had four disciples — namely Abu Bakr, Omar, Uthman, and Ali who was his son-in-law — the Turks hold all four to be of the same authority, but the Persians, taking no account of the first three, esteem only Ali, son-in-law of Mohammed their prophet.⁴⁵ For this reason the Turks hold these Chizil-bas⁴⁶ to be heretics and outside the true path; and lastly I have heard from a good source, that the Grand Signor has had an opinion issued by his Mufti, who is like their Pope, by which all Turks are given to believe that in killing a Persian they will have the same merit as if they killed a Christian, and that it is just as permissible to plunder the property of the former as that of the latter. But despite all this, in Anatolia the greater part of the Turks is inclined to the Sofi, because they see and hear how well his subjects are treated by him; for in truth, the affection all his people have for him is an incredible thing, and it is said that at the mere name of their lord, there is no man who would not gladly go to his death.

This Sofi is therefore greatly esteemed and feared, as I say, because from his borders he could on any occasion send his people as far as Scutari, a place in Anatolia opposite the Seraglio.

The Sharif [chief of the tribes of the Moors of Barbary] is also held in consideration by this Grand Signor, and by his men, because they see him becoming very great, having a volunteer army that follows him, and hearing that many important Moorish lords have joined with him; and at the Porte it was said that he had come as far as Tlemcen, which is the capital of the kingdom of Barbary, and even to a castle a fifteen-day journey from Algiers. He is a man of about eighty years, most liberal, from what is said, humane, and very grateful to his soldiers, and he greatly rewards those whom he sees perform some signal feat. He likewise dresses without pomp, nor is he given to any sort of luxury, but takes pleasure in seeing his soldiers well-dressed, and every day he lets them know that the duty of a good soldier is either to live worthily or to die.

He keeps for his guard fifteen thousand Moors in the likeness of the Janissaries, and, from what is said, of no lesser valor. These men, as I am informed by one who understands these matters, stay in the camp to kill all those who might flee from the battle; from which it arises that everyone would rather fight to the death against the enemy than flee, because in any case he knows he must die by the hand of his own men.

They had great fear of this Sharif the first year the fleet set out, fearing that, after taking Tripoli or even leaving it behind, he could come as far as Alexandria and Cairo, turning all of Africa upside down; and therefore it was said last year that the fleet was being assembled to relieve those parts, they being in need of it.

The Sultan’s Court

The Grand Signor ordinarily has four councilors who are called pashas, men of great authority with him, who advise on all matters of state, and make reports of them to the Grand Signor, and are called viziers, that is, councilors. These men, in the time of the other Ottoman lords, used to first counsel on matters together, with each one freely giving his opinion; and although the Grand Vizier has always had the charge of proposing, yet the others also often gave their opinion, and hence it was that although the first was of a higher rank, yet he who negotiated sought to deal with the others as well. But today everything is reduced to the Grand Vizier alone.

These pashas have an income of twenty-four thousand ducats a year, administered by ministers whom they call voivodes; and when it happens that grain is in demand, they extract much more, especially from the lands assigned to one who is in high repute, as the magnificent Rustan is now, for being good places and near the seacoasts, and everyone considers it a favor to buy from him at a higher price than the ordinary; so that from twenty-four thousand they very often reach fifty, and even sixty thousand ducats. These pashas are accustomed to appear very honorably, and to have from two to three hundred slaves each, with most beautiful horses.

The four pashas at present are, first, the magnificent Rustan, son-in-law of his majesty, of the Serbian nation, from a hamlet near the seraglio of Bosnia, a man of about fifty years. The second is Achmet, of the Albanian nation: and these two men are whole [i.e. not eunuchs]. The other two are Ibrahim the third, who is also from Bosnia, an old man of eighty years; and Cardar is the fourth, also Albanian. Who, although they are all pashas, can be considered as one, because everything that Rustan indicates is done, nor does anyone dare to contradict him, so that he can be considered the absolute master of that empire. And although against the custom of his predecessors, this Grand Signor has always allowed himself to be governed by one man alone, there was nevertheless never anyone who had greater authority with him than this pasha.

It is said that Ibrahim was so great that he did whatever he pleased, and only when it seemed fit to him did he say a word of it to the Grand Signor, who praised everything; with whom he was as intimate as Your Lordships are with His Serenity, and he would go into the seraglio whenever it suited him, and was a companion rather than a slave to the Grand Signor. But this current pasha, although he may not have such familiarity as to be able to enter within, and though he never goes to the Grand Signor except at the ordinary times, is said to have a more well-founded greatness and authority with him than Ibrahim had, because the latter, with the Grand Signor’s money and his own, sought to acquire the favor of the people, and especially of the Janissaries, while Rustan, by cutting the expenses which he deems superfluous and by increasing in every way the treasury, seeks to preserve himself by making greater in every way the grandeur of the Grand Signor. And not wishing that on any account the slaves should wear caps of gold, as do those of the other pashas, he seeks to flee envy; and he never does anything, however small, without making a request of it to the Grand-Signor, and he does it in such a way that he is certain to obtain whatever he asks.

He has, moreover, a foundation of great importance in the wife he has, who is most dear to her father and mother, and who goes very often into the Grand Signor’s seraglio to visit her mother; and both of them on every occasion seek to place the husband and son-in-law in favor. And I have learned from a good source that they have many times attempted to arrange for Rustan to be able to enter the Grand Signor’s seraglio as familiarly as Ibrahim did; to which he has answered them that it is enough to commit a folly once.

This Grand Signor has, however, introduced this practice: that whenever he has a mind to consult with Rustan on some matter of importance, and does not wish the other pashas to know of it, he orders a cavalcade through the city, and then, when the time seems right to him, he has Rustan approach, with whom he reasons and discourses on the matters he has in mind, and resolves what is to be done.

This pasha is rather small than large, red in the face, and his countenance is so flushed that it seems to have a leprous color. He appears outwardly of a very good physical disposition and robust, but it is said that he has some indisposition of moment. He shows above all a great quickness in his eyes, and that he was born to be a man of affairs. He is, moreover, most diligent and sober beyond measure, as it is said he has never drunk wine; his is most patient in his labors, because besides the affairs he treats with the Grand Signor, the whole week, Tuesday excepted, he gives private audiences, from a very early hour until sunset.

He has a great memory for things, and in particular for the forces of the Grand Lord, and how, and from what quarter, there is cause for fear. He has a reputation with many for being proud and choleric, but I have found him to be very humane and pleasant, nor have I ever refrained from stating the reasons of Your Serenity in his presence; by which, being convinced, as a man of judgment, he falls silent and retreats to some ground that seems to him substantial, and certainly with such amiability and manner that one can hope to obtain many things and make him understand the truth. He adapts to the time and the circumstances, and what he denies at one time, he easily concedes at another. He is ambitious beyond measure, nor can one do him a greater pleasure than to tell him that these Ottoman lords never had a wiser or more prudent man than he. He is most avaricious, and with money he can be induced to do whatever one wants. He is by nature as great an enemy of the Christians as any who has ever been, and says that one must not trust the giaours, but yet he shows more regard for those Christians who give him the most. With him are negotiated and handled all matters of importance, and he would be greatly scornful and would do many a disservice if he knew that things were not done through his hand. He is inclined to peace for this reason principally: that he knows there is nothing that could disturb the great happiness he has in this world except a war, to which, even if the Grand Lord were inclined, he would never advise him, as he did in that of Persia; in which, in truth, the Grand Lord having suffered, he acquired much greater favour, as the one who had dissuaded him.

Thus, with much discontent he has seen this occasion and beginning of a war arise between the Most Serene Lord of Austria and his Lord, and in many discussions that I have had with him, he has never told me anything more forcefully than that, it being his desire to remain at peace, Spain and Ferdinand have deceived him, the one concerning the affairs of Africa, the other concerning Transylvania, their ambassador, who is still detained, always affirming to him upon his own head that the Emperor would restore Africa, and that the King of the Romans did not want Transylvania. Yet for all this, on that occasion letters were sent by the Most Serene King of the Romans to his detained ambassador, a copy of which I sent to Your Serenity, whereupon it was resolved to send the secretary to the King of the Romans with that commission of which I wrote — who, had he returned in time, or had Spain and Ferdinand sent a new ambassador to the Porte, the truces would easily have been renewed for four years, if they had wished. But the Racanà came too late, because the army had already set out, and Achmet Pasha had ridden towards Hungary, and it had already been established what the Turkish army was to do together with the army of the Most Christian King [the King of France].

I have been, Most Serene Prince, speaking at length of the person of this pasha, because to preserve the friendship one has with the Grand Signor, there is no means more potent than to have the said pasha as a friend and favorable; nor can he be won by any surer and more certain way than with money, because besides being of a very greedy nature, it seems to him that in being presented with gifts, one shows regard for his person. This is the path taken by all those who desire some favor from him, nor could one say how many presents and of what great importance are brought to him every day; and his having told me so many times, as I have written, “I am a friend of the Signoria, but it does not know me, and will know me when it loses me” is a tacit asking, beyond the overt requests. And therefore, he being of such a nature, and having the authority that he has, which could not be greater, and Your Serenity designing to remain at peace with this Grand Signor, I reverently remind you, that if at certain times some present were sent to him, without being requested, either of cloth or of choice silk of some fine sort for his attire and that of the Sultana, which would not be of great expense, it would be a very pleasing thing to him, coming voluntarily; yet you are most prudent, and will do whatever you judge to be of benefit to your affairs.

This pasha often changes offices, such as sanjaks, and others of importance; because besides the benefit that comes to the treasury of the Grand Signor by reason of the letters and commands, he too receives very great utility from it, because there is no man who, upon receiving an office or a benefice from him, does not make him honorable presents — so that it is believed that, gaining so much by every means, and not spending much, he has an infinite quantity of money. He does not much esteem jewels, but gifted ones do not displease him. He has done and does everything to promote those silk and gold works of his from Bursa, and he himself sometimes likewise dresses in them. He is also vindictive, but with time, and with presents, he pardons.

Now, to say something of the audiences of the Grand Signor, I will first say that deputed to them are the four pashas, who always beforehand gather together with the others of the court in a room of the seraglio, where the beylerbeys, the kadıaskers [chief judges], the defterdars [treasurers], and the scribes of the court and other officials also convene. This room, worked with most beautiful marbles and most beautiful columns, has outside it benches to sit upon, where sit the çavuşbaşı [chief herald], the kapıcılar kethüdası [head of the gatekeepers], and some old çavuş [heralds / officials], and the other çavuş stand. In the said room sits the first pasha on the right-hand side, and after him the second, and then the third and the fourth; then sits the beylerbey of Greece, then that of Anatolia, and the last is the beylerbey or rather Captain of the Sea; and all these on one bench, at the turn of which sits the nişancı [chancellor], who reviews and reads all the commands written by the scribes, and finding them correct, he signs them, and makes those large letters that signify the head of the Grand Signor, and finding an error or indeed poor wording, he marks that place and sends it back to the scribes to make another. On Rüstem’s left-hand side, on that same bench, sit the two kadıaskers, and at its turn immediately sit the defterdars. Behind them, who sit almost three palms high from the ground, are all the scribes, who have charge of the Grand Signor’s revenues and expenditures, and of all that continually enters the treasury and all that is taken out; and these sit on the ground upon carpets. Next to them sit in that manner the caznadar, who have the duty of counting and weighing the ducats and aspers that are continuously delivered to the Porte, and of putting them in leather bags. The aspers are put fifty thousand per bag, and then the said bags are sealed. Then further on is a very large house called caznà [treasury], where are kept all the records of the Grand-Seignior’s revenues, and in many chests are placed all the accounts that are sent from all the provinces, and on each chest are written on the outside, and attached, the years, year by year, and the accounts of the various places, lands, and provinces. In that caznà are also put the ducats, and monies, and all that which is brought on the days of the divan [the council] to the Porte.

Also put in the caznà are the sewn garments of woolen cloth, of silk, and of cloth of gold, the furs of lynxes and of sables, and any other such sewn goods, according as it has been presented to the Grand Signor, or indeed purchased for the needs of his court. This caznà is opened on the four days of the divan, which are Saturday, Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday; and besides being under several keys, and sealed with the seal of the Grand Signor (which is of gold, kept always with the first pasha ), when it is to be opened, the ciaus-bascì goes, and removes the seal in person, and shows that wax to the Grand Vizier, and does likewise to the caznadar of the divan. When it is then to be closed, the ciaus-bascì goes to take the seal from the Grand Vizier, who, taking it from his breast, first puts it to his mouth as if to kiss it, because the name of the Grand Signor is written upon it. Similarly, the ciaus-bascì, taking it in his hand, kisses it, and then goes to the caznà, and seals the door, and returns the said seal to the pasha, and first he kisses it, and then the pasha, taking it in his hand, kisses it again, and puts it back in his breast. Before the said room of the pashas, which is like the second audience chamber, is another place, which is called the first gate, where are the aga of the spahi, of the silictari, of the ulufegì, and outside, standing, are all those who seek justice from the pashas as well as from the cadileschièr and tefterdar, under the guard of eight or ten capigì. Who at the proper time let them go ten or fifteen at a time towards the pashas’ room, where there is another capigì who lets them pass one by one; and this rule is kept so that not so many go in together, in order not to disturb the pashas.

Food is given at the divan to all the grand masters starting from the first gate, to the agas of the spahis, of the silictars, of the ulufegì, and at the same hour to the pashas, to the beylerbeys, to the cadileschièr, to the tefterdar, and to the ni-sangi. These eat in that same place in the manner in which they find themselves seated. Then to the ciaus-bascì, to the ca-pigiler-chietcudascì, and to all the scribes. The same at the third gate, to all the grand masters who are on guard of the Grand Signor.

The pashas, both before and after eating, always give audience; and then, when the third or fourth hour of the day has come, as it seems fit to the Grand Signor, his majesty sends leave to the cadileschièr, by means of a capigì* that they may come to him. They immediately rise, accompanied by the ciaus-bascì and capigiler-chietcudascì, and go to the third gate. The ciaus-bascì accompanies them, but returns immediately to the pashas. The cadileschièr, having entered before the Grand Signor, have their petitions in hand, and begin to read matters of civil and criminal disputes one by one, and the Grand Signor gives the reply, and in almost every matter leaves the charge to said cadileschièr that it be done according to justice and the law and the commandment of God; and in some matters of importance, the cadileschièr answer the Grand Signor that in such a case the law commands such a thing, and the Grand Seignior replies to them: “Let it be done.”

When the cadileschièr have finished their petitions with the Grand Seignior, they return outside, and do not go to their former place to sit near the pashas, but go straight to the other gate, and sit down between the two gates (as each gate is double), and there they give some brief audience and then go to their homes. When the cadileschièr have left the chamber of the Grand Signor, the pashas immediately rise from the place where they are sitting with the beylerbey and *tefterdar*, and go to the third gate, and from there, accompanied by the capigì-bascì and other great masters, they go to the chamber of the Grand Signor; where, upon entering, first the beylerbey make their petitions in matters pertaining to their offices (having first given notice thereof to the Grand Vizier) and speak to the Grand Signor of what they have to do. When their petitions are finished and they have received the replies from the Grand Signor, with the counsel of the pashas, the beylerbey go out of the chamber, and from there straight to their homes, accompanied by their slaves on foot and on horseback.

The tefterdar having remained with the pashas before the Grand Signor, the tefterdar, in the presence of the pashas, make their petitions to his majesty (having already, before entering before the Grand Signor, made their petitions to the Grand Vizier in that place where the pashas sit to give audience), and there likewise in the presence of the Grand Seignior the first pasha, according to the cases, says what the tefterdar should do, and the Grand Seignior either confirms it, or commands according to his own opinion. When the tefterdar have finished their petitions, they make their reverence and go outside, and sit down on a bench near the gate of the caznè, where they discuss the matters that have occurred and what they have to do after the pashas’ departure from the Grand Seignior; after which the tefterdar*rise to their feet and make their reverence to the pashas, and walking with them, return to sit in their place with them.

The four pashas having remained in the chamber with the Grand Signor, after the tefterdars have departed, the first begins to make his petitions and the other three remain quiet, as he is the one who has managed everything; and so one by one, having finished making their petitions, and the Grand Vizier having received the answers to all of them, they return outside and go to their usual place to sit, and give orders according to the business received from the Grand Signor.

In the meantime, the food that is brought to the pashas and others is prepared, as has been better declared above. Then they again begin to give audience, until after midday, and when the scribes’ writings have been delivered, and the treasury sealed with the seal of the Grand Signor, which is always kept by the Grand Vizier, the divan is dismissed; and the first pasha, accompanied by his slaves on foot before him, and by the çavuş on horseback, and by the other grand masters, goes to his house, and after him the others.

The tefterdar do not enter the presence of the Grand-Seigneur except on two of the divan days per week, that is, the second, which is Sunday, and the fourth, which is Tuesday. This was the ordinary custom, but in the time of Ibrahim before, and now of Rustan, a change has been made in this as well, after their own fashion, as they are masters and lords of the entire empire.

The Grand Vizier

This Rustan Pasha, given up by his master — who held him as a slave— because he could not pay the caraz, and brought, as he himself told me, with rope shoes on his feet, was enclosed in the seraglio of Pera, and little by little brought into the chamber for the service of His majesty. It is said that the first degree of favor he acquired with the Grand Signor was that, when something or other fell from His Majesty’s hands as he stood at a window, and while the other pages ran by the stairs and through the doors to fetch it, this Rustan threw himself down from a window to be quicker in bringing back what had fallen from His Majesty’s hand. He, when the time came to leave the seraglio, left as emi-raor-bascì, which means grand master of the stable of the Grand Signor, a most honored rank. Afterward he was made sangak in Anatolia, and then beylerbey; and the Grand Signor having a daughter to marry, although the mother was inclined to give her to the one who is presently pasha of Cairo, who is a handsome man, and who, to disrupt this marriage with Rustan, had the physician Amon told underhandedly that he had the French disease [syphilis] and was in poor health, the Grand Signor nonetheless wished to give her to him, and was so advised also by Suleiman Pasha, who was then Grand Vizier; Rustan then, in reward for the good offices done for him, had him dismissed and took his place; and the manner was this:

There were at one time four pashas: the first Suleiman, the second Mehemet, the third Rustan, the fourth Usref. Rustan therefore first arranged, through the Grand Lord and the Sultana, that Mehemet, the second pasha, should cede his place to him and sit in the third, which was easy for him to obtain. Then he saw that Suleiman, who was Grand Viier, stood in the way of his total greatness; and knowing that he had been in Cairo, where he had gained much, and that Usref, who was not much of a friend to the same, knew many things about him, he tempted the said Usref to make them known to the Grand Lord; but as Usref refused to do so, Rustan obtained a command from the Grand Lord that an inquiry be made into the operations and government of the said Suleiman from the time he had been in Cairo: and thus, together with the favor he was beginning to have, he found a way to obtain what he desired. And because this did not seem to be enough for him, he again went to tempt Usref, that at least when asked by the Grand Lord if the things alleged against Suleiman were true, he should confirm them as the truth, promising him that he would always do great things for him. Thus he finally induced him; and one day that seemed convenient to him, he presented Usref to the Grand Lord, saying that Usref, there present, knew that all that was written concerning Suleiman was the truth. To whom the Grand Lord having asked if it was so, he replied: “It is so.” To which an angered Suleiman replied that it was not the truth, and that he had been and was a good servant and slave to His Majesty. To these words Usref, wishing to reply, and likewise Suleiman to his, the Grand Lord ordered that for speaking with so little respect in his presence, Suleiman should be deposed; and in this way it came to be that Rustan was made first vizier. And because Cardar, now fourth pasha, and then one of the four chief agas of the eunuchs, and a great friend of Soliman, having heard that he had been deposed for speaking with little respect, told the Grand Lord that the same should be done to Usref, so it was ordered that Usref too should be dismissed. There remained Mehemet who had renounced the place of second pasha to him: and this one too, as a reward for the courtesy he had shown him, he removed from his way by having him accused of rebellion; but ultimately he has had him given the sanjak of Bosnia. And because he saw that Cardar, being inside the seraglio, being most favored by the Grand Lord, and being able to speak to him always, could have done some ill office against him, he contrived, under the pretense of honoring him, that he should be brought out of the seraglio and be made fourth pasha; for although this gave him a higher rank, it nevertheless removed him from a position more dangerous to his own greatness, being able, as I have said, to speak at any hour with the Grand Lord.

From these things it now arises that everyone trembles before him, and the pashas themselves have told me many times, that in the divans they stand in the presence of the Grand Lord as witnesses to many false things.

Trade in Constantinople

Since, then, the principal charge of a bailo of Constantinople is the defense of the nation’s merchandise, I wish also to say a few words on this matter.

There are now few merchants in Constantinople, and it is a wonder that even those few are found there, because they all complain that they make little profit; and the cause for the decline in commerce is the great expenses for commissions, brokers, gratuities, increases in servants, warehouse rents, and devaluations of gold, which together amount to almost fourteen percent: all of which expense could perhaps have been tolerated at the time when the Porte bought, as in the time of Ibrahim, a world of woolen and silk cloths at an advantageous price and for ready cash. But now that the affairs of the Porte are so constrained that in two years not as much is dispatched as was then dispatched in a week, they are forced by necessity to negotiate with the Jews, who, if they pay for goods in cash, want to pay less than the capital cost, and if they sometimes engage in barter, they do it in such a way that it is ruinous for those who deal with them: and if there is anyone who wishes to sustain his capital, he finds no way to make use of it, so that in the end he too is forced to do the same as the others and to give away their goods for whatever they can get.

These Jews have ruined that trade entirely, also because they corner the market on all the wool and sell it as they see fit; and they have also taken over the trade in fine camlets [a fabric made from camels], which, by having them all made or buying them all themselves, they come to earn what the merchants who attended to this trade used to earn.

Then, besides the scant profits, or rather the certain and very significant losses, another cause for the lack of business is the fear of the Grand Lord’s death; in which case, due to the overbearing power to which the Janissaries have risen, everything is at risk of being sacked, and even a fire, which could very easily occur, can produce the same effect.

To these two causes is added a third which I deem of great moment: that since these who are masters, or factors, in Constantinople are young men, they cannot live without women; and to flee from greater dangers they resort to taking some women as cadin, that is, as wives; with whom, having children, should the father’s death occur, there would be no lack of entanglements even over goods that were proven not to belong to the father: and such justification is very difficult not only in private matters, but also in public ones.

These few things I have wished to say, which will then be given such consideration as seems fit to those merchant gentlemen who send their capital, and who, after deducting the expenses, must then make their accounts.

I have said many things of some importance thus far, but what I now prepare to say I deem of much greater importance, and this concerns the person and quality of the dragomans [translators]. And before I say anything else, I will say, would that God willed it that in an affair of such importance to Your Serenity as that of Constantinople, the ministers of this Most Illustrious Dominion could use their own tongue as the interpreter of their thoughts, and could understand what is answered to them without any intermediary, because certainly, things would proceed more straightforwardly.

An ambassador or bailo of Your Serenity will say, for example, words of efficacy and full of dignity, and the dragoman is then at liberty to report as much of it as he pleases. The pasha will sometimes reply with words upon which a great foundation could be laid, either one way or the other; which words, when reported, are either not the same, or if they come close, they lose their vigor and force. And therefore, among the many difficulties of negotiating at that Porte, I deem this to be one of the most principal and important, and one for which I find it difficult to find a remedy; because the bailos and ambassadors, being unable to know the Turkish language, must needs rely on what is reported to them. Foreseeing this, this most illustrious Senate has prudently ordered that two young men should come with my most distinguished successor to learn that language; of whom, however, Your Serenity will be able to make no other use than to send them as secretaries in due time with the ministers, provided, however, that they combine with the language those other qualities that befit a good and faithful secretary.

Now, to leave aside future matters, which may turn out well, I will say that I found two dragomans; one chosen by my most distinguished predecessor, who is Francesco of Negroponte, but of Genoese descent: the other is Gianesino, who has already served this state for more than twenty years, and is very well known to Your Most Illustrious Lordships for having been employed at various times in many important matters. Of Messer Francesco I made little use, not because I do not believe that he could have performed his office well enough, knowing and understanding the language, but because he was very new to that business, and he seemed to me of a somewhat vehement and contentious nature, and not suited to succeed with the Turks for the benefit of Your Serenity. Therefore, I decided on Gianesino, from whom, in truth, I have received such service that I could not have desired anyone more diligent. On all four days of the week when the Divan is held, from morning until they are dismissed, which is past midday, he always remained firm at the audience post, nor could anything be done that he did not know of, and if complaints about borders or other matters arose, he defended them stoutly. He is known and cherished by all, and he understands the humors of that nation very well. He is most welcome to the pashas, but especially to Rustan, with whom he has acquired such confidence and familiarity that he speaks without reserve and laughs with him. I believe him to be most faithful, and he has good cause to be so, as he profits in every way, and he recognizes that what he is, and the fortune he has acquired, have come to him from the grace and liberality of this state, after the most distinguished Messer Francesco Bernardo of good memory appointed him to this service. And certainly, Most Serene Prince, to speak the truth, as I am obliged to do, Your Serenity could not now find a man more suited to serve you in this office; his worth will be recognized when he is no longer available.

For this reason, one should not examine every matter so minutely with him, and I much praise the prudence of this Most Illustrious Senate in having given him, on two occasions, four hundred ducats so that he could marry off two of his daughters; of whom he still has two others, and I have always confirmed him in this hope, that as he continues to be a good servant of Your Serenity, you too will never fail to be benevolent toward him. And in truth I exhort Your Serenity, that since the affairs of Constantinople are so important for your own matters, and since Gianesino has been so long employed in them, knowing also all the secrets and public business of many years past, and, what is more important, not knowing which way to turn, nor on whom to rely, that you hold him dear and keep him well content, as, believing it to be for the benefit of Your Serenity, I myself have striven to do in the time I have been there.

And because he is occupied, as I have said, from morning till evening with public affairs, and sought out by all the merchants, by their council of twelve, without a single ballot to the contrary, a retainer was granted to a pupil of his named Pasquale, of forty ducats a year; who having now been for four or five years under his discipline, has been in the house of the baili, and handles the dispatch of the ships very well, so that in this there is little need of Gianesino himself. This Pasquale, because he is very poor and has a large family, desires to work hard and to get ahead; he applies diligence to learning to read Turkish; and to conclude, I hope that good service will be had from him. Granting him this initial retainer has been to the satisfaction of all; because, in truth, Gianesino could not attend to everything, and Messer Francesco knows nothing at all of the dispatch of ships and other such matters.

And since I am on the subject of dragomans, none has yet emerged with greater credit, nor through whose hands more important matters pass, than Ibrahim-bei, a Pole by nation, between twenty-eight and thirty years of age, a slave of Achmet Pasha. He is of a fine appearance, understands the Latin language well, and speaks it like a Hungarian; he understands Turkish, in which he reads and writes very well, and is learning the Greek and Frankish languages, so that in a short time he will be master of these as well. He was made a dragoman after the death of Janus-bei, through the favor of Achmet Pasha, and in a short time has advanced so far that everything passes through his hands. From him I have had much information, and many matters of importance sent to Your Serenity from time to time; and where it was necessary, I have sought to win him over by every means, and I have advised my successor to do the same. And it also seems fitting to remind Your Serenity that the Bailo, in your name, should have some present made for him, because he has told me many times that he has seen the book of Janus-bei, in which were written the presents given to him by all the princes, and others who negotiated at this Porte, where he had found that no one else gave as much or as often to Janus-bei as the Signoria of Venice; to which I have many times replied, that the Signoria is accustomed to treating its good friends thus. With him the ambassador of the King of the Romans spent a great deal of time before he was detained, and after him the ambassador of France, who with gifts, and with every office, has made him his own. I too have not failed to have my share, for after all he is a Turk, and for money will do anything.

Personal Affairs and Conclusion

I have had for my secretary Messer Daniele Buonrizzo, here present, of whose work and faithfulness it is not necessary for me to speak more than have his many travels in the service of this Most Illustrious Senate in Spain, in France, in Germany, in Rome with various most distinguished ambassadors, and most recently in Constantinople amidst so many dangers of plague and other diverse hardships.

He has written so much with his own hand during this bailiwick that it can scarcely be believed, and the letters that I have written to Your Serenity have reached ten quires, and duplicates have always been sent, besides so many documents sent from time to time. I leave aside his answering of so many commissions, in diverse places according to the circumstances, and his subsequent registering of all the letters written to Your Serenity. Besides the labors of the chancellery, he has never refused any sort of danger or hardship in the service of Your Serenity, and for all the affairs of this Most Illustrious State he has always had greater care and respect than for his own affairs.

He lost, Most Serene Prince, in Constantinople, his mother and a brother, who was the support of his house, but he has been constant and intrepid, having his sights always set upon the benevolence of Your Most Illustrious Lordships; and so have I assured him, and so I assure him again, knowing the quality of Your Excellencies to greatly bestow favors upon those who have served faithfully, as he has done.

Of myself, I know not what to say, knowing that I have done nothing of which I can boast in this Senate of having done. And although so much grain has been sent at various times, and many subjects of Your Serenity have been freed from famine; and that in the matter of the fisheries, having Rustan as an adversary, by making a petition to the Grand Signor, a command was obtained that no more trouble should be made for a thing that gives Your Serenity an income of twelve thousand ducats a year without spending a single soldo; and that I have freed more than two hundred and twenty slaves at various times, and not only kept the pasha from ruining Spalatro, but also settled the affairs of the Spalatrini as they desired; I have not, however, done anything of which I can boast, as I have said above, that should be spoken of here, because even if every citizen of this Most Illustrious State were to acquire a province for it, and make Your Serenity mistress of the world, he ought to say: “Domine, cum haec omnia feci, servus inutilis fui.” [“Lord, I did all these things as your useless servant.”]

Too great is the debt, Most Serene Prince, that one owes to one’s homeland, for which no one can do so much that he is not obliged to do much more, and it is the voice of a narrow and sordid soul to say: “I have deserved well of my country.”

In my time, two armadas have set out for two continuous years under a proud and avaricious captain, the brother of Rustan, and it has been necessary to present him, for the benefit of Your Serenity, with honors, in conformity with what I have found written in the books was given in the time of Barbarossa under the most distinguished Zane, since from that time until now no other armadas had set out; and with three armadas having set out since the peace, which has been twenty years, two have fallen to me in the two years I have been there.

I have dealt with that disturbance in the waters of Corfu, for which I was obliged to present Dragut with gifts honorably, and likewise on this occasion many others of the fleet were presented with gifts, all of which was done with a view to the benefit of Your Serenity’s affairs.

The Porte was in Adrianople for two continuous years, wherefore it was necessary, in order to follow it, to incur much extraordinary expense.

I departed from Your Serenity without a single coin from the public treasury, and in so many instances of expense, I have done the best I could. I confess to Your Serenity, out of the reverence I bear you, that to find myself in Constantinople, where everything is done for money, and to be most often without it when I was greatly constrained, caused me much travail, knowing I lacked a support with which one can remedy many disorders to the benefit and dignity of Your Serenity. I wish to reverently remind Your Serenity never to leave your ministers in Constantinople without a good sum of money, because that is a stronghold wherein in every need they can save themselves, and preserve the peace. Let care continue to be taken, as it has been until now, to send skillful men whose goodness and virtue have been proven (excepting in this part my own person, of whom let the judgment be as it pleases your Most Excellent and Illustrious Lordships).

I say again, let care be taken to send men who can be trusted, and let them not be left without money. And certainly the election of the most distinguished Messer Domenico Trevisano, my successor, I believe will redound to his greater eminence and to the great benefit of Your Serenity. Of whom, were it not for the love that has been between us for so very many years, I would speak more than I shall, content to say only that I seem to recognize in him all the qualities necessary for that office: goodness, dexterity, and liberality, with which he had already acquired the favor of many, but that of Rustan above all others, which is of the utmost importance.

I have left, upon my departure for Adrianople, as vice-bailo the magnificent Messer Leonardo Emo, a young man as prudent, skilflul, and diligent as Your Most Illustrious Lordships have been able to see from many letters sent to this Most Illustrious Senate. It pleased me exceedingly to see this election approved and praised in the letters from Your Serenity, and I hope that Your Lordships, having had proof of his worth, will make use of him; and I affirm that the greater the matters in which he shall serve this Most Illustrious Republic, the greater will be the service that she may expect from him.

1. The belief that Baghdad was built on the ruins of Babylon was not only common in Navagero’s time, but also much later. One of the causes that entrenched this error was certainly that Baghdad is divided by a river (the Tigris), just as Babylon was by the Euphrates.

2. Sultan Suleiman, reigned 1520-1566

3. Taken in 1551 from the Knights Hospitaller

4. Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, reigned 1519-1556

5. By this name he means the chief of the tribes of the Moors of Barbary, at that time still independent of the Ottomans

6. The Peloponnese peninsula

7. Crete

8. Region of northeastern Italy

9. In the previous report from 1534, “ducat” referred to the 3.5 gram Venetian gold coin. In this report, it more likely refers to an accounting term, and means 124 soldi (silver coins), which is what the ducat used to be worth. Between the last report and the 1550s, the value of silver had plummeted due to Spanish mines in the new world, and so the actual value of the Venetian gold ducat was now…more than a ducat. When this report refers to the actual gold coin, it is called a “sequin” (from zecchino, named after the mint, of Zecca, of Venice)

10. The Sultan’s treasury

11. Governor of a second-level administrative region

12. The original compilers note that this calculation of 7,166,000 ducats, or rather of 8,366,000 if one does not deduct half the revenues of Egypt and Syria, differs from the sum stated above of 9,022,500 ducats, but they say that which sums the error lies is impossible to determine, given such incorrectness of the codices, unless in this particular case one takes as a reconciling figure what is read in the following paragraph.

13. A land tax paid by both Muslims and non-Muslims, as opposed to the caraz (haraç) paid only by non-Muslims

14. An asper (akça in Turkish) was a silver coin, of about 0.6 grams in the 1550s. One Venetian ducat was worth about 60 aspers in the 1550s.

15. Thessaloniki, Greece

16. Here used to mean Black

17. Also known as the Chief White Eunuch

18. Another name for the gold Venetian ducat, a 3.5 gram gold coin

19. Grand Vizier

20. Who was Grand Vizier 1523-1536. He was Grand Vizier at the time of the previous report, but fell out with the Sultan’s beloved wife Roxelana, and was killed.

21. Grand Vizier 1544-1553. Within a year of this report, Rustem would be relieved of his post after popular backlash for his role in the death of the Sultan’s son Mustafa, but he would be reinstated 2 years later.

22. A boat used to transport horses

23. The number of effective janissaries, which later greatly surpassed the size of the initial institution, never went beyond forty thousand, although in later times the registers came to record as many as more than three hundred thousand, due to an abuse introduced along with so many others, of being able to be honorarily enrolled in this corps.

24. The Ottoman Sultans upon their accession to the throne extinguished with death all collateral branches of the family, to remove any opportunity for dangerous conflicts, and to give, as they said, greater vigor to the main trunk. Mehmed III had nineteen brothers bled to death, as well as all the concubines his father had left pregnant.

25. The Seven Towers (in Turkish Jedi-Kulè) is the name of a castle located at the western extremity of Constantinople, which in ancient times served for the defense of the city, and was in the 1800s kept for use as a state prison. The historian Pouqueville, who was imprisoned there for twenty-five months together with the French minister Ruffin, gives a long and curious description of it.

26. A suburb of Constantinople. This word also means cannon foundry, and perhaps that suburb took its name from this industry.

27. Free sailors.

28. That is, from the Bosphorus and the Dardanelles, the two mouths of the Sea of Marmara, defended by many castles of greater or lesser importance.

29. Barbarossa had died in 1546.

30. The captain of the sea was Sinan, brother of Rustan, the grand vizier: he is discussed further on.

31. It should be noted, for the understanding of this passage, that the suburb of Pera was under the immediate authority of the Captain of the Sea, or as one would say today, of the Grand Admiral.

32. This perhaps alludes to the capture of his person and his ships, to which Dragut was subjected in 1540; while fleeing Mocenigo’s fleet, he fell into that of Gianettino Doria and was taken.

33. The prohibition of drinking wine is highly pronounced in several places in the Quran, where this beverage is defamed with the names of *mother of corruption*, *father of destruction*, *diabolical abomination*, and it is written that he who drinks wine is as infamous as the idol worshiper, and that the instant a man takes a cup of wine in his hand, he is struck with anathema by all the angels of heaven and earth. Despite this, some Islamic theologians, such as Zemobschare and Gelal’eddin, think that Mohammed prohibits only the immoderate use of wine; and it was certainly with the help of this authority that some caliphs and Ottoman sultans permitted themselves to drink it publicly, among them Bayezid I, and as we learn from this report, Suleiman himself. But after the severe edicts of Murad III son of Selim II, and of his successors, all persons of any standing, especially those employed in the service of the State, always saved at least the appearances. There were almost no others than the *dervishes*, the soldiers, the sailors, and the lower classes who give the scandal of drinking wine. Public morality, however, has its rights over drunkards. A Muslim taken by wine, who fell in the street and is *surprised by the guard*, could condemned to the bastinado. Some severe sultans even ordered the cutting off of the head.

34. Rustan had married a daughter of the Sultana and of Suleiman.

35. The Ottoman sultans could not by customary law marry any woman (although like all Ottoman Muslims they were permitted to keep an indefinite number of female slaves) . This custom, about whose origin there are various opinions, seems more probably to have been introduced in order to prevent the prince from contracting alliances with foreigners. This is confirmed by the death of Sultan Othman, son of Ahmed, which occurred in the year 1622, since the soldiers who rebelled against him accused him principally of having contracted, through his marriage, an alliance contrary to the fundamental customs of the empire.

36. Suleiman also wished, in expiation of the faults that the deceased might have committed, to free a great number of slaves of both sexes, and next to the aforementioned mosque to found a college for the education of the youth, and a hospital for the relief of the poor of any religion.

37. But this was not to be. Roxelana, in the interest of her own offspring, knew so well how to insinuate into Suleiman the suspicion that Mustafa was aiming to secure his father’s succession through rebellion, that he was finally induced to decree his death, which was carried out under his very own eyes.

38. The year 1552.

39. This alludes to the truce of 1546, which was determined on the part of the Emperor by the desire to be able to freely turn his arms against the Protestants of Germany, and on the part of Suleiman by an equal desire against the Persians. The imperial ambassador was Giusto de’ Conti.

40. This certainly alludes to the enterprise of Naples, which was secretly proposed in those days to the Venetians by the King of France, who was allied with the Turks.

41. Taken on the 16th of August 1551. The Knights of Malta who were there in its defense saved themselves, along with some of the principal men of the land, aboard the French galleys.

42. Maximilian, who was later emperor.

43. For having married Charles V’s firstborn daughter, Maria, in 1548.

44. While it’s true Bayezid was captured, the legend that he was kept in a cage and treated so poorly is dodgy.

45. I.e. the Safavids were Shia

46. With this name, which means red-head, the Turks used to refer to the Persians, on account of the red cap or turban that they wear.